Glossary ¶

Active Listening¶

Giving a speaker full attention and showing understanding by focusing on their words, asking follow-up questions, reflecting back what was heard and leaving room for silence.

Example: Saying "So you moved when you were twelve?" before asking the next question is active listening.

Taught in Chapter 22: Bring It Home.

Adivasi Communities¶

India's Indigenous or tribal peoples, many with their own languages, faiths, governance and ways of life tied to forests, hills and land. The government's official term is Scheduled Tribes.

Script and sound: आदिवासी, AH-dee-VAH-see, "original inhabitants"

Example: Many Santali speakers in Jharkhand belong to Adivasi communities.

Taught in Chapter 17: India.

Afghan Carpets¶

Hand-knotted wool rugs woven in Afghanistan, especially in the north and west, in traditions passed down within families for generations.

Example: Afghan carpets are one of the country's best-known crafts and an important source of household income.

See also: Afghanistan

Afghanistan¶

A landlocked, mountainous country where South Asia meets Central Asia and Iran, and the eighth member of SAARC, which it joined in 2007. It had about 44 million people in 2025 (World Bank).

Example: The nearest sea to Afghanistan, the Arabian Sea, is about 480 km to the south.

Ahimsa¶

Non-violence: not harming any living being, in action, word or thought. Hindus and Buddhists value it, and Jains place it at the very center of their lives.

Script and sound: अहिंसा, uh-HIM-sah

Example: Many Jains avoid root vegetables such as potatoes, onions and garlic to avoid harming tiny living things.

Akbar¶

The third Mughal emperor, who ruled from 1556 to 1605 and built the Mughal state into a lasting empire stretching from Kabul to Bengal.

Example: Akbar became emperor as a teenager.

See also: Mughal Empire, Akbar and Birbal Tales

Akbar and Birbal Tales¶

Funny stories about the Mughal emperor Akbar and his quick-witted minister Birbal, who solves impossible puzzles and outsmarts jealous courtiers. Birbal was real, but most of the tales are later folk creations.

Example: In many tales, Birbal answers a trick question from Akbar with a clever twist.

See also: Akbar, Oral Tradition

Al-Biruni¶

A Muslim scholar born in Khwarazm in Central Asia (973 to 1048) who wrote one of the most careful early books about South Asian science and society after going to Ghazni, in today's Afghanistan.

Example: Al-Biruni measured the positions of towns in the Punjab during Mahmud of Ghazni's expeditions.

See also: Hindu-Arabic Numerals

All-India Muslim League¶

A political party founded in 1906 in Dhaka to represent the political interests of Muslims in British India. In 1940 it adopted the Lahore Resolution, later called the Pakistan Resolution.

Example: Muhammad Ali Jinnah led the All-India Muslim League in the years before Partition.

Taught in Chapter 4: Colonialism, Independence, and Partition.

Allama Iqbal¶

Sir Muhammad Iqbal (1877 to 1938), a poet and philosopher born in Sialkot who wrote in Urdu and Persian and whose 1930 Allahabad Address called for a separate political home for Muslims in northwest British India. Allama means "learned scholar."

Example: Pakistan was founded nine years after Iqbal's death.

Allyship¶

The ongoing practice of supporting a group one is not part of by listening, learning, showing up and using one's voice or access to back that group, while letting its members lead.

Example: Ben joining the South Asian Student Association and helping set up events is allyship.

Taught in Chapter 22: Bring It Home.

Anand Karaj¶

The Sikh wedding ceremony, "blissful ceremony," held in front of the Guru Granth Sahib, at the center of which the couple walks around the scripture four times as the four hymns of the laavan are sung.

Script and sound: ਅਨੰਦ ਕਾਰਜ, uh-NUND KAA-raj

Example: Many Sikh weddings take place in the morning at a gurdwara.

See also: Guru Granth Sahib, Weddings, Nikah

Taught in Chapter 13: Family, Names, and Life Events.

Anglo-Afghan Wars¶

Three wars that Britain fought in Afghanistan, in 1839 to 1842, 1878 to 1880, and 1919, driven by British fear that the Russian Empire would use Afghanistan as a route to India.

Example: After the third war, the 1919 Treaty of Rawalpindi recognized Afghanistan's full independence.

See also: Afghanistan, British Raj

Taught in Chapter 4: Colonialism, Independence, and Partition.

Anuradhapura¶

An ancient royal capital in the dry north-central plains of Sri Lanka and a holy city for Buddhists, which flourished for about 1,300 years until it was abandoned after an invasion in 993 CE.

Script and sound: uh-noo-RAH-duh-POO-ruh

Example: Pilgrims still visit Anuradhapura's ancient stupas.

See also: Sri Lankan Kingdoms, Stupa

Arranged Marriage¶

A marriage in which parents or other relatives help find and suggest a partner, and the couple then decides whether to go ahead. It is common in South Asia alongside "love marriages," where the couple meets on their own.

Example: Parents might introduce their son to a family friend's daughter, and the two meet several times before deciding.

See also: Weddings, Gender Roles and Change

Taught in Chapter 13: Family, Names, and Life Events.

Aryabhata¶

A mathematician and astronomer (476 to 550 CE) who worked at Kusumapura during the time of the Gupta kings and finished his verse book, the Aryabhatiya, in 499 at age 23.

Example: Aryabhata wrote the Aryabhatiya in verse so students could memorize it.

See also: Brahmagupta, Gupta Empire

Ashoka¶

The third Maurya emperor, grandson of Chandragupta, who ruled from about 268 to 232 BCE over an empire stretching from present-day Afghanistan to present-day Bangladesh.

Example: Ashoka had his messages carved on rocks and stone pillars across his empire.

See also: Maurya Empire, Edicts of Ashoka

Taught in Chapter 2: Ancient Roots.

Ashura¶

The 10th day of Muharram, the first month of the Islamic year. For Shia Muslims it is a solemn day of mourning for Husayn ibn Ali, killed at Karbala in 680 CE, and many Sunni Muslims fast on it.

Script and sound: عاشورا, aa-SHOO-rah, "the tenth" (Persian)

Example: In Dhaka, the Hussaini Dalan is the center of Muharram gatherings.

Atolls¶

Rings of coral reef and small low islands surrounding a shallow lagoon. The English word comes from the Dhivehi atholhu.

Script and sound: އަތޮޅު, atholhu (A-tho-lu)

Example: The islands of the Maldives are grouped into 26 atolls.

See also: Maldives, Dhivehi

Taught in Chapter 20: Nepal, Bhutan, and the Maldives.

Attan¶

A Pashtun circle dance widely called the national dance of Afghanistan, in which dancers move around a drummer, clapping and spinning as the beat speeds up.

Script and sound: اتڼ, uh-TUN

Example: Attan is often danced at Afghan weddings, including in communities abroad.

See also: Folk Dance, Afghanistan

Taught in Chapter 10: Dance and Theater.

Austroasiatic Languages¶

A language family spread from eastern India to Vietnam and Cambodia. In South Asia its best-known members are the Munda languages, spoken mainly by Adivasi communities, and Khasi in Meghalaya.

Example: Santali, written in its own Ol Chiki script, was added to India's Eighth Schedule in 2003.

See also: Adivasi Communities, Language Family

Ayurveda¶

A traditional medical system from South Asia, based on old Sanskrit texts, that uses diet, herbs, daily routines, exercise and sometimes minerals to try to keep the body in balance. This is a description of a tradition, not medical advice.

Script and sound: आयुर्वेद, AA-yur-vay-duh, "knowledge of life"

Example: India has a government ministry, AYUSH, for traditional systems including Ayurveda.

See also: Unani Medicine, Yoga

B¶

B. R. Ambedkar¶

Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (1891 to 1956), a lawyer, economist and political leader born into a Dalit family, who fought for the rights of Dalits and chaired the committee that drafted India's Constitution.

Example: Ambedkar earned doctorates from Columbia University and the London School of Economics.

Taught in Chapter 4: Colonialism, Independence, and Partition.

Balochistan¶

Pakistan's westernmost and largest province by area, bordering Iran and Afghanistan, with Quetta as its capital. It is the most thinly populated province.

Example: Mehrgarh, one of South Asia's earliest farming villages, is in Balochistan.

See also: Provinces of Pakistan, Mehrgarh

Bangladesh Liberation War¶

The 1971 war in which East Pakistan fought for and won independence from Pakistan, becoming Bangladesh. Independence was declared on 26 March 1971 and the war ended on 16 December 1971.

Script and sound: মুক্তিযুদ্ধ, MOOK-tee-jud-dho, "liberation war"

Example: About 10 million refugees fled to India during the Bangladesh Liberation War.

Taught in Chapter 4: Colonialism, Independence, and Partition.

Bangles¶

Rigid bracelets, usually worn in sets, made from glass, metal, shell, lac, plastic or other materials, with a very long history in the region.

Script and sound: चूड़ी, CHOO-ree (Hindi)

Example: The bronze "Dancing Girl" from Mohenjo-daro wears a stack of bangles on her left arm.

See also: Bindi, Harappa and Mohenjo-daro

Battle of Plassey¶

The battle on 23 June 1757 near Plassey (Palashi) in Bengal in which East India Company forces under Robert Clive defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah, the Nawab of Bengal, largely because the Nawab's commander Mir Jafar kept his troops out of the fight.

Example: After the battle, the Company made Mir Jafar the new Nawab of Bengal.

See also: East India Company

Taught in Chapter 4: Colonialism, Independence, and Partition.

Baul Music¶

The music of the Bauls, wandering singers of Bangladesh and West Bengal who draw on both Sufi Islam and Vaishnava Hindu devotion, and many of whom reject divisions of caste and religion.

Script and sound: বাউল, BAH-ool

Example: Many Baul singers play the ektara, a one-stringed instrument of gourd and bamboo.

See also: Folk Music, Sufism

Taught in Chapter 9: Music.

Bay of Bengal¶

The northeastern part of the Indian Ocean, lying east of India and south of Bangladesh, with Myanmar on its eastern side and Sri Lanka at its southwestern edge. It covers about 2.2 million square km.

Example: The Ganga, Brahmaputra, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri rivers all flow into the Bay of Bengal.

See also: Indian Ocean, Sundarbans

Taught in Chapter 1: What Is South Asia?.

Bengal Delta¶

The vast, low plain built by the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers where they flow into the Bay of Bengal, the largest river delta in the world. It is also called the Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta.

Example: Most of Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal sit on the Bengal Delta.

See also: Sundarbans, Rivers and Floods

Bengal Famine of 1943¶

A famine during the Second World War in the province of Bengal and parts of Orissa (now Odisha) in which very large numbers of people died of starvation and disease. Estimates of the death toll range from about 800,000 to 3.8 million.

Example: The economic historian Cormac Ó Gráda describes the scholarly consensus as about 2.1 million deaths.

See also: British Raj

Taught in Chapter 4: Colonialism, Independence, and Partition.

Bengali Language¶

An Indo-Aryan language, called Bangla by its speakers, that is the official and national language of Bangladesh and an official language of West Bengal, Tripura and Assam's Barak Valley.

Script and sound: বাংলা, BAANG-laa

Example: In India's 2011 census about 97 million people spoke Bangla as their mother tongue, second only to Hindi.

Bhagat Singh Thind Case¶

United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind (1923), a US Supreme Court decision that ruled South Asians were not "white persons" and therefore could not become naturalized citizens.

Example: At the time, US law allowed only "free white persons" and people of African descent to naturalize.

Bhagavad Gita¶

A poem of about 700 verses in the sixth book of the Mahabharata, "God's song," in which Krishna answers the warrior Arjuna's doubts before battle in a conversation about duty, action, devotion and the self.

Script and sound: भगवद्गीता, BHUG-uh-vud GEE-taa

Example: Many Hindus read the Bhagavad Gita for guidance on how to act rightly.

See also: Mahabharata, Dharma

Bhakti Movement¶

A wave of devotional poetry and practice within Hinduism that taught that loving devotion to God is open to everyone, whatever their caste, gender or education. It began in the Tamil country around the 6th century CE and spread north over the next thousand years.

Script and sound: भक्ति, BHUK-tee, "devotion"

Example: The Alvars, devoted to Vishnu, and the Nayanars, devoted to Shiva, were early Tamil poet-saints of the Bhakti Movement.

See also: Hinduism, Kabir, Sufism

Bhangra¶

A folk dance and music of Punjab, traditionally linked with the harvest and festivals like Vaisakhi, driven by the dhol, a large two-sided drum.

Script and sound: ਭੰਗੜਾ, BHUNG-ra

Example: Bhangra is danced on both sides of the India-Pakistan border in Punjab.

See also: Folk Music, Vaisakhi, Global South Asian Pop

Taught in Chapter 9: Music.

Bharatanatyam¶

A classical dance from Tamil Nadu, closely linked for centuries with Hindu temples and royal courts of the Tamil region. Its older name was Sadir.

Script and sound: பரதநாட்டியம், BHUH-ruh-tuh-NAHT-yum

Example: The Thanjavur Quartet organized much of the order of pieces still used in Bharatanatyam today.

See also: Classical Dance, Mudra

Taught in Chapter 10: Dance and Theater.

Bhutan¶

A small, mountainous kingdom of about 800,000 people (2025, World Bank) in the eastern Himalaya, between India and China's Tibet region, with Thimphu as its capital. Bhutanese call it Druk Yul, "Land of the Thunder Dragon."

Example: The thunder dragon appears on Bhutan's national flag.

See also: Dzong, Gross National Happiness, Dzongkha

Taught in Chapter 20: Nepal, Bhutan, and the Maldives.

Bindi¶

A dot, traditionally red or maroon, worn in the center of the forehead, often between the eyebrows. The word comes from the Sanskrit bindu, "point" or "drop."

Script and sound: बिंदी, BIN-dee

Example: Many people today wear small stick-on bindis in every color and shape.

See also: Bangles, Cultural Appropriation

Biryani¶

A dish of rice layered and slow-cooked with meat or vegetables, yogurt and spices, often with saffron. The name comes from the Persian biryan, "fried" or "roasted."

Script and sound: بریانی, bir-YAH-nee (Urdu)

Example: The Ain-i-Akbari, written at Akbar's court in the 1590s, lists biryani alongside pilau.

See also: Indo-Persian Culture, Regional Cuisines

Taught in Chapter 8: Food and the Table.

Block Printing¶

A way of printing patterns on cloth by carving a design into a wooden block, dipping it in dye and stamping it by hand over and over.

Example: A cloth with three colors may need three carved blocks, lined up by eye.

See also: Cotton in South Asia

Taught in Chapter 11: Art, Architecture, and Craft.

Bollywood¶

The popular name, blending "Bombay" and "Hollywood," for the Hindi-language film industry based in Mumbai. It refers to Hindi films only, not all Indian or South Asian films.

Example: A Hindi film with big stars and several song-and-dance numbers, made in Mumbai, is a Bollywood film.

Taught in Chapter 15: Cinema, Cricket, and Pop Culture.

Brahmagupta¶

An astronomer and mathematician (born 598 CE) who wrote the Brahmasphutasiddhanta in 628 CE at Bhillamala and later led the observatory at Ujjain.

Example: Brahmagupta treated zero as a number with its own rules.

See also: Zero, Aryabhata

Brahmaputra River¶

A braided river about 3,000 km (1,900 miles) long that begins in Tibet, cuts south through the Himalaya into India's Arunachal Pradesh, flows through the Assam Valley and enters Bangladesh, where it is called the Jamuna.

Example: In Tibet, near Mount Kailash, the same river is called the Yarlung Tsangpo.

See also: Bengal Delta, Rivers and Floods

Taught in Chapter 1: What Is South Asia?.

Brahmi Numerals¶

The number signs written with the Brahmi script, which appear on inscriptions from the 3rd century BCE.

Example: An edict of Ashoka at Sasaram, from about 250 BCE, writes the number 256 in Brahmi numerals.

See also: Brahmi Script, Hindu-Arabic Numerals

Brahmi Script¶

The ancient script that is the ancestor of most scripts used in South Asia today, and of many in Southeast Asia and Tibet. It was in use by the 3rd century BCE.

Example: The Edicts of Ashoka are the best-known early examples of Brahmi, deciphered by James Prinsep in the 1830s.

See also: Edicts of Ashoka, Abugida, Brahmi Numerals

British Raj¶

Direct rule of South Asia by the British Crown from 1858 to 1947, run by a Viceroy appointed in London. Raj means "rule" in Hindi-Urdu.

Example: The Viceroy governed first from Calcutta (now Kolkata) and later from New Delhi.

Taught in Chapter 4: Colonialism, Independence, and Partition.

British South Asians¶

People in the United Kingdom with roots in South Asia, a community that grew sharply in the 1950s and 1960s when Britain needed workers to rebuild after World War II.

Example: As Commonwealth citizens, people from India and Pakistan could come to Britain fairly easily in that period.

See also: Diaspora, Uganda Expulsion of 1972

Buddhas of Bamiyan¶

Two giant standing statues of the Buddha, 55 m and 38 m tall, carved into a sandstone cliff in Afghanistan's Bamiyan Valley in the late 500s and early 600s CE and destroyed by the Taliban in March 2001.

Example: Empty niches in the Bamiyan cliff show where the statues once stood.

See also: Afghanistan, Buddhism

Buddhism¶

The faith based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, called the Buddha ("awakened one"), whom Buddhists believe found the path to freedom from suffering.

Example: Buddhists believe the Buddha reached enlightenment while meditating under a tree at Bodh Gaya, in present-day India.

See also: Theravada and Vajrayana, Lumbini, Vesak

C¶

C. V. Raman¶

Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman (1888 to 1970), a physicist from Tamil Nadu who discovered that light scattered by molecules returns partly with a slightly different color, now called the Raman effect. He won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1930.

Example: Scientists today use Raman's discovery to identify substances.

See also: Srinivasa Ramanujan

Calendar Conversion¶

Finding the date in one calendar that matches a date in another, such as working out which Gregorian day begins a month of the Islamic or a lunisolar calendar.

Example: Working out which Gregorian day will be the first of Shawwal, when Eid al-Fitr begins, is calendar conversion.

Taught in Appendix C: Festival Calendar 2026-27.

Calligraphy¶

The art of beautiful writing, which holds a special place in Islamic art because many Muslims believe the words of the Qur'an deserve the most beautiful form possible.

Example: The Taj Mahal's gateways are framed with Qur'anic verses in a flowing script called thuluth.

Taught in Chapter 11: Art, Architecture, and Craft.

Carnatic Music¶

The classical music of southern India and of Tamil communities in Sri Lanka and around the world, centered on composed songs, many of them devotional, in languages such as Telugu, Tamil, Kannada, Sanskrit and Malayalam.

Example: Purandara Dasa (1484-1564) is called the "father" of Carnatic music for setting out the basic lessons students still learn.

See also: Hindustani Music, Veena

Taught in Chapter 9: Music.

Carrom¶

A tabletop game of Indian origin in which players flick a heavy disc, the striker, to knock smaller wooden pieces into the four corner pockets of a square board.

Example: Many South Asian American families keep a carrom board in the basement.

See also: Chaturanga

Taught in Chapter 15: Cinema, Cricket, and Pop Culture.

Caste Discrimination Laws¶

Laws that ban treating people unfairly because of their caste and that protect communities who faced untouchability.

Example: Article 17 of India's Constitution, in effect from 26 January 1950, abolished "untouchability."

See also: Caste System, Constitution of India

Taught in Chapter 13: Family, Names, and Life Events.

Caste System¶

A social system, built over many centuries and still continuing, in which people are born into ranked groups that shape whom they marry, what work they are expected to do and how others treat them.

Example: Caste can still affect marriage choices in South Asia and in diaspora communities today.

Taught in Chapter 13: Family, Names, and Life Events.

Ceylon Tea¶

Black tea grown on Sri Lanka's hill-country plantations and still sold around the world under the island's old name.

Example: In the first nine months of 2025, Sri Lanka's tea exports earned about 1.16 billion US dollars.

See also: Chai, Sri Lanka

Chai¶

Tea; in much of South Asia, black tea boiled with milk and sugar and often spiced with cardamom, ginger, cinnamon, cloves or black pepper.

Script and sound: चाय, Urdu چائے, CHAI

Example: The spiced version, masala chai, is sold at railway stations from Karachi to Kolkata.

See also: Hospitality Customs, Ceylon Tea

Taught in Chapter 8: Food and the Table.

Chaturanga¶

An old board game from India, first clearly mentioned in the 6th or 7th century CE, that is the earliest known ancestor of chess. Its Sanskrit name means "four limbs," the four parts of an old army.

Example: Chaturanga was played on an 8-by-8 board called the ashtapada.

See also: Carrom

Chola Dynasty¶

A Tamil royal family from the Kaveri River delta in south India whose empire, founded around 848 CE by Vijayalaya, was one of the strongest powers in South Asia for about four centuries.

Example: By 1279 the Cholas had been absorbed by their Pandya rivals.

See also: Indian Ocean Trade, Sri Lankan Kingdoms

Christianity in South Asia¶

The region's many Christian communities, some among the oldest in the world and others formed later through Portuguese, Dutch, British and other missions.

Example: Christians in Kerala trace their church to the apostle Thomas, who in their tradition arrived in the first century.

Christmas in South Asia¶

The celebration of the birth of Jesus on 25 December by South Asia's Christian communities.

Example: Kerala has the largest Christian population of any Indian state.

See also: Christianity in South Asia

Classical Dance¶

A dance tradition with a long written theory, usually traced to the Natya Shastra, a fixed technique learned over years with a teacher, a set order of pieces and official recognition as a classical art. The label describes a codified form, not a better one.

Example: Bharatanatyam, Kathak and Odissi are classical dances.

See also: Folk Dance, Natya Shastra

Taught in Chapter 10: Dance and Theater.

Code-Switching¶

Moving back and forth between two or more languages or styles of speaking in the same conversation, or even the same sentence. Linguists study it as a skill, not a sign of weak language ability.

Example: A teen in Mumbai who says, "Yaar, the exam was bahut hard," is code-switching between Hindi and English.

See also: Heritage Language, Hyphenated Identity

Coke Studio¶

A TV and online music series in which established and new artists perform live studio recordings, often mixing folk, Sufi, classical, rock and pop. Coke Studio Pakistan, launched in 2008, is its most famous version.

Example: A Coke Studio song might pair a qawwali singer with a young pop artist.

See also: Qawwali, Global South Asian Pop

Taught in Chapter 15: Cinema, Cricket, and Pop Culture.

Colombo¶

Sri Lanka's largest city and commercial capital, a major port on the west coast visited for centuries by Arab, Portuguese, Dutch and British ships.

Script and sound: කොළඹ, koh-LUM-boh

Example: Arab, Portuguese, Dutch and British ships all used Colombo's harbor over the centuries.

See also: Sri Lanka

Colorism¶

Prejudice or unfair treatment based on skin tone, usually favoring lighter skin over darker skin, including among people of the same background.

Example: Skin-lightening creams such as Fair & Lovely, renamed Glow & Lovely in 2020, reflect colorism.

See also: Stereotypes

Taught in Chapter 22: Bring It Home.

Columbian Exchange¶

The movement of plants, animals, people and diseases between the Americas and the rest of the world that began after 1492, named by the historian Alfred Crosby in 1972.

Example: Chili peppers, potatoes and tomatoes reached South Asian kitchens through the Columbian Exchange.

See also: European Traders, Regional Cuisines

Taught in Chapter 8: Food and the Table.

Coming-of-Age Rites¶

Ceremonies that mark the move from childhood toward adulthood or full membership in a community.

Example: A Sikh who formally joins the Khalsa takes part in a coming-of-age rite.

See also: Life-Cycle Rituals

Taught in Chapter 13: Family, Names, and Life Events.

Community Impact¶

The real difference a project makes in people's lives, measured by changes people can see or count rather than by how busy the organizers were.

Example: Five new members who say they finally feel they belong is community impact; ten meetings is only activity.

See also: Community Organizing, Student Clubs

Taught in Chapter 22: Bring It Home.

Community Organizing¶

People working together in a planned way toward a shared goal for their community by finding out what people need, building relationships, dividing up the work and acting together.

Example: A club surveying members, then planning a food drive with a local gurdwara, is community organizing.

See also: Student Clubs, Community Impact

Taught in Chapter 22: Bring It Home.

Constitution of India¶

The supreme law of India, which sets up its government, divides power between the center and the states, and lists citizens' rights. It was adopted on 26 November 1949 and came into effect on 26 January 1950.

Example: Indians celebrate Republic Day each year on 26 January.

Taught in Chapter 17: India.

Cotton in South Asia¶

The long history of growing, spinning and weaving the cotton plant's soft seed fibers in South Asia, going back more than 7,000 years.

Example: The oldest known cotton fibers in the world were found with copper beads at Mehrgarh.

See also: Khadi, Jamdani, Mehrgarh

Cricket¶

A bat-and-ball game played between two teams of eleven on a large oval field, centered on a 22-yard pitch with a wicket of three stumps at each end.

Example: One team bats while the other bowls and fields, and then they switch.

See also: India-Pakistan Rivalry

Taught in Chapter 15: Cinema, Cricket, and Pop Culture.

Cultural Appreciation¶

Learning about, honoring and taking part in another culture with respect: understanding what something means, being invited or welcome, giving credit and supporting the people the tradition comes from.

Example: Learning what a festival means, accepting an invitation to it and thanking the hosts is cultural appreciation.

See also: Cultural Appropriation, Allyship

Taught in Chapter 22: Bring It Home.

Cultural Appropriation¶

Taking an element of another group's culture, usually by someone from a more dominant group, in a way that ignores its meaning, gives no credit, or turns it into a costume or product without the community's involvement.

Example: Wearing a sacred symbol as a party costume without knowing its meaning is cultural appropriation.

See also: Cultural Appreciation, Bindi

Taught in Chapter 22: Bring It Home.

Cultural Identity¶

A person's sense of belonging to one or more cultural groups, built from family, language, faith, food, place, history and the people around them. It is partly given, partly chosen and changes over a lifetime.

Example: Zara's Bangladeshi, Muslim and Minnesotan roots all shape her cultural identity.

See also: Hyphenated Identity, Desi Identity

Taught in Chapter 22: Bring It Home.

Cultural Preservation¶

The work of keeping a community's traditions, knowledge, languages and memories alive for future generations by recording them, practicing them and passing them on.

Example: A gurdwara Sunday school that teaches children Gurmukhi helps with cultural preservation.

See also: Oral History, Heritage Language

Taught in Chapter 22: Bring It Home.

D¶

Dal¶

Split pulses, the dried seeds of plants like lentils, peas and beans, and the soupy or thick dish made from them.

Script and sound: दाल, DAHL

Example: Red lentils (masoor), split mung beans (moong) and split chickpeas (chana) are all dals.

See also: Tadka, Thali, Vegetarianism in South Asia

Taught in Chapter 8: Food and the Table.

Dari and Pashto¶

Afghanistan's two official national languages, a status first set out in the 1964 constitution. Dari is the form of Persian spoken in Afghanistan; Pashto is the language of the Pashtuns on both sides of the Afghanistan-Pakistan border.

Script and sound: دری, dah-REE (Dari); پښتو, PUSH-toh (Pashto)

Example: Afghans of different groups often use Dari to talk to each other.

See also: Iranian Languages, Afghanistan, Pashtunwali

Dashain and Tihar¶

Nepal's two biggest festivals, about three weeks apart in the autumn. Dashain is a 15-day festival, Nepal's version of the Navaratri season, and Tihar is a five-day festival of lights.

Script and sound: दशैं, duh-SHAIN (Dashain); तिहार, tee-HAAR (Tihar)

Example: On Kukur Tihar, the second day of Tihar, dogs get flower garlands and treats.

See also: Navaratri and Durga Puja, Diwali, Nepal

Deccan Plateau¶

A large raised tableland of about 422,000 square km covering much of central and southern India, with an average height of about 600 m (2,000 ft). Its name comes from the Sanskrit word for "south."

Script and sound: दक्षिण, DUK-shin, "south"

Example: The Western and Eastern Ghats frame the Deccan Plateau on either side.

See also: Western and Eastern Ghats

Taught in Chapter 1: What Is South Asia?.

Delhi Sultanate¶

A series of Muslim-ruled kingdoms based in Delhi that controlled much of northern South Asia from 1206 to 1526 under five dynasties. A sultan is a king, and a sultanate is the land he rules.

Script and sound: سلطنت, sul-TUH-nut, "rule" or "kingdom" (Urdu and Persian)

Example: The Sultanate ended when Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526.

Desi Identity¶

The shared sense of belonging that many people of South Asian heritage, especially in the diaspora, express with the word "desi," meaning roughly "one of us, from back home."

Example: A college desi club might welcome students with roots in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal alike.

See also: Diaspora, Cultural Identity

Devanagari¶

The abugida used for Hindi, Marathi, Nepali, Sanskrit, Maithili and several other languages, recognizable by the line that runs along the top of most letters. Its name joins deva, "divine," and nagari, from nagara, "city."

Script and sound: देवनागरी, day-vuh-NAA-guh-ree

Example: The word हिन्दी (Hindi) is written in Devanagari.

See also: Abugida, Brahmi Script

Dhaka¶

The capital and largest city of Bangladesh, on the Buriganga River in the middle of the country, and one of the most crowded cities in the world.

Script and sound: ঢাকা, DHAH-kah

Example: SAARC was founded in Dhaka in 1985.

Dharma¶

The idea of right order, duty and right conduct: the way things should be and the way a person should act. In Hindi, dharm can also simply mean "religion."

Script and sound: धर्म, DHUR-muh

Example: Many Hindus see a student's dharma as different from a parent's or a teacher's, depending on stage of life and responsibilities.

See also: Hinduism, Karma and Rebirth

Dhivehi¶

The Indo-Aryan language of the Maldives, whose name means roughly "islanders' language." Its closest relative is Sinhala.

Script and sound: ދިވެހި, dhi-VAY-hee

Example: English borrowed the word "atoll" from Dhivehi.

See also: Sinhala Language, Atolls

Taught in Chapter 20: Nepal, Bhutan, and the Maldives.

Dhoti¶

A man's unstitched lower garment, a rectangle of cloth about 4 yards long wrapped around the waist and passed between the legs, so it looks like loose trousers.

Script and sound: धोती, DHOH-tee

Example: Gandhi made the white cotton dhoti famous around the world.

See also: Lungi, Saree

Diaspora¶

A population that lives outside its ancestral homeland but keeps some connection to it through memory, language, faith, food, family ties or shared identity. The Greek word means "scattering."

Script and sound: dye-AS-pruh-ruh

Example: Zara's family in Minnesota is part of the Bangladeshi diaspora.

See also: Desi Identity, Transnational Families

Dietary Rules and Faith¶

The food rules of a religious tradition: the foods its followers are asked to avoid, the ways food must be prepared, and the days for fasting and feasting. Practices vary widely, even within one faith or family.

Example: Many Muslims eat only halal meat, and many Hindus avoid beef.

See also: Halal, Vegetarianism in South Asia, Ramadan

Taught in Chapter 8: Food and the Table.

Diwali¶

The festival of lights, held on the new moon at the end of the lunar month of Ashvin (Kartika in some regional calendars), usually in October or November. Its name comes from the Sanskrit Deepavali, "row of lamps."

Script and sound: दिवाली, dee-VAH-lee

Example: Families light small clay oil lamps called diyas, draw rangoli at the doorway and share sweets on Diwali.

See also: Dashain and Tihar, Rangoli, Mithai

Dravidian Languages¶

A language family not related to Indo-European, whose four largest members, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam, are spoken by about 20% of India's people, mostly in the south.

Example: Brahui, spoken mainly in Balochistan, Pakistan, is a Dravidian language far to the northwest.

See also: Tamil Language, Language Family

Dupatta¶

A long scarf or shawl, usually worn by women with a shalwar kameez or with a long skirt and blouse. Its name roughly means "a doubled strip of cloth."

Script and sound: Hindi दुपट्टा, Urdu دوپٹہ, doo-PUT-tah

Example: Some women wear the dupatta over the head in a place of worship or in front of elders.

See also: Shalwar Kameez

Durrani Empire¶

An Afghan empire founded in 1747 by the Pashtun leader Ahmad Shah Durrani that stretched over Afghanistan, much of present-day Pakistan, and into Punjab and Kashmir. Many historians see it as the start of modern Afghanistan.

Example: Ahmad Shah Durrani ruled from Kandahar, and his son later moved the capital to Kabul.

See also: Afghanistan, Kabul

Dzong¶

A large fortress-monastery, found mainly in Bhutan, that is both the religious center and the government office for a district, with one side for monks and temples and the other for government offices.

Script and sound: རྫོང, DZONG

Example: A dzong has high white walls that slope inward and a red-brown stripe near the top.

See also: Bhutan, Dzongkha

Taught in Chapter 20: Nepal, Bhutan, and the Maldives.

Dzongkha¶

The national language of Bhutan, a Tibetic language written in the Tibetan script. Its name means "the language of the fortress."

Script and sound: རྫོང་ཁ, DZONG-kaa

Example: Officials in the dzongs of western Bhutan spoke Dzongkha.

See also: Dzong, Tibeto-Burman Languages

Taught in Chapter 20: Nepal, Bhutan, and the Maldives.

E¶

Early Islam in South Asia¶

The first centuries of Muslim presence in South Asia, which arrived along several routes, both peacefully and through conquest, over hundreds of years.

Example: Arab merchants already sailed to South Asia before Islam began, so Muslim traders appeared on its coasts very early.

See also: Islam in South Asia, Delhi Sultanate, Sufism

East India Company¶

An English, later British, private company owned by investors that received a royal charter on 31 December 1600 to trade in Asia and later conquered and governed large parts of South Asia.

Example: After the Battle of Plassey in 1757, the East India Company gained control of Bengal.

Eating With Hands¶

An old and widespread South Asian custom of eating with the fingers, usually of the right hand only, with hands washed before and after the meal.

Example: Rice is gathered with the fingertips and mixed with dal, and roti is torn and used as a scoop.

See also: Roti and Naan, Hospitality Customs

Taught in Chapter 8: Food and the Table.

Edicts of Ashoka¶

Messages that the emperor Ashoka had carved on rocks and tall polished stone pillars across his empire, among the oldest readable written documents in South Asia. Most were written in Prakrit using the Brahmi script.

Example: Pillars carrying the Edicts of Ashoka still stand in parts of India and Nepal.

See also: Ashoka, Brahmi Script

Taught in Chapter 2: Ancient Roots.

Eid al-Adha¶

"The festival of sacrifice," on the 10th day of Dhu al-Hijjah during the Hajj, which in Islamic tradition honors the prophet Ibrahim's willingness to sacrifice his son at God's command.

Script and sound: ঈদুল আযহা, EED-ul AD-ha (Bangla)

Example: Families who can afford it sacrifice an animal and share the meat with relatives, neighbors and people in need.

See also: Eid al-Fitr, Halal

Eid al-Fitr¶

"The festival of breaking the fast," which begins on the first day of the month of Shawwal when the new crescent moon is sighted at the end of Ramadan.

Script and sound: ঈদুল ফিতর, EED-ul FIT-er (Bangla)

Example: The night of the moon sighting, Chand Raat, brings last-minute shopping and henna before Eid.

See also: Ramadan, Eid al-Adha

Eighth Schedule¶

A list attached to the Constitution of India that names the languages the government officially recognizes and promises to develop. It began with 14 languages and today lists 22.

Example: Bangla, Tamil, Urdu, Santali and Sanskrit are among the 22 languages of the Eighth Schedule.

Ekushey February¶

"The twenty-first of February," the day in 1952 when students in Dhaka were killed while protesting for Bangla to be a state language of Pakistan, now remembered as Language Martyrs' Day and, worldwide, as International Mother Language Day.

Script and sound: একুশে ফেব্রুয়ারি, ay-KOO-sheh FEB-roo-ah-ree

Example: UNESCO declared 21 February International Mother Language Day in 1999.

Elections in India¶

The regular votes, run by the independent Election Commission of India, in which adult citizens aged 18 or older choose members of Parliament and state assemblies.

Example: A national election chooses the members of the Lok Sabha.

See also: Parliament of India

Taught in Chapter 17: India.

European Traders¶

Merchants and companies from Portugal, the Netherlands, England, France and Denmark who came to South Asia by sea from 1498 onward to buy spices, cotton cloth, indigo and other goods. For most of this period they were guests and customers of South Asian rulers.

Example: Portuguese sailors reached the coast of India by sea in 1498.

See also: East India Company, Indian Ocean Trade

F¶

Field Hockey¶

A team sport played on grass or artificial turf with curved sticks and a hard ball, eleven players a side, long dominated at the Olympics by India and Pakistan.

Example: India's men's team won Olympic gold eight times, and Pakistan's men's team won three times.

See also: Cricket, Kabaddi

Taught in Chapter 15: Cinema, Cricket, and Pop Culture.

Film Music (Filmi)¶

The music written for South Asian movies, especially the song-and-dance numbers in most films. It borrows from ragas, folk songs, qawwali, ghazal and Western styles.

Script and sound: फ़िल्मी, FILL-mee

Example: A hit Bollywood song mixing a raga melody with a disco beat is filmi.

See also: Playback Singing, Bollywood

Taught in Chapter 9: Music.

Folk Dance¶

A dance that grows out of a community's everyday life, such as harvests, weddings, festivals and worship. Anyone can join, and steps are passed on by watching and doing.

Example: Garba in Gujarat and Attan in Afghanistan are folk dances.

See also: Classical Dance, Garba, Attan

Taught in Chapter 10: Dance and Theater.

Folk Music¶

Songs and rhythms passed down in villages and communities, tied to work, seasons, weddings, festivals and faith, usually learned by ear and performed by ordinary people.

Example: Bhangra began as the folk music and dance of the Punjab harvest.

See also: Bhangra, Baul Music

Taught in Chapter 9: Music.

Funeral Customs¶

The rites families follow when someone dies: how the body is cared for, the funeral itself, and the period of mourning afterward.

Example: Many Hindu families cremate the body, while Muslim families bury it as soon as possible, often within a day.

See also: Life-Cycle Rituals

Taught in Chapter 13: Family, Names, and Life Events.

G¶

Ganges (Ganga) River¶

A river about 2,525 km (1,569 miles) long that rises in the western Himalaya in Uttarakhand, flows east across the northern plains of India and crosses into Bangladesh, where it is called the Padma.

Script and sound: गंगा, GUNG-gaa

Example: The Yamuna and several rivers from Nepal are tributaries that join the Ganga on its way east.

See also: Indo-Gangetic Plain, Bengal Delta

Taught in Chapter 1: What Is South Asia?.

Garba¶

A circle dance from Gujarat danced during Navaratri, traditionally moving counterclockwise around a lamp in a clay pot or an image of the goddess Amba.

Script and sound: ગરબા, GUR-bah

Example: A related dance, dandiya raas, uses pairs of decorated sticks.

See also: Navaratri and Durga Puja, Folk Dance

Taught in Chapter 10: Dance and Theater.

Garment Industry¶

Bangladesh's large, mostly export-oriented industry of factories that sew clothing for brands around the world, the country's biggest source of export earnings.

Example: "Made in Bangladesh" is a common label on T-shirts and jeans.

See also: People's Republic of Bangladesh

Gender Roles and Change¶

The expectations that families and societies have for women and men, and how those expectations are shifting. Traditionally, many South Asian families expected men to earn money and women to run the home and care for elders.

Example: Many daughters once received less schooling than sons, a pattern that has changed in many families.

See also: Joint Family, Arranged Marriage

Taught in Chapter 13: Family, Names, and Life Events.

Gharana¶

In Hindustani music, a "musical household": a lineage of musicians connected by family or by teacher and student, sharing a recognizable style. The word comes from ghar, "house."

Script and sound: घराना, gha-RAA-na

Example: Gwalior, Agra and Kirana are well-known singing gharanas, named after places.

Taught in Chapter 9: Music.

Ghazal¶

A form of love poetry, and the music made from it, built from at least five rhyming couplets that each stand alone but share a refrain. It flourished in Persian and became the leading poetic form in Urdu from the 1700s.

Script and sound: غزل, GUZ-ul (Urdu)

Example: The "beloved" in a ghazal can be a human love, God, or both.

See also: Mirza Ghalib, Qawwali

Taught in Chapter 9: Music.

Gho and Kira¶

The national dress of Bhutan: the gho, a knee-length robe for men tied at the waist with a woven belt, and the kira, an ankle-length wrapped dress for women pinned at the shoulders.

Script and sound: བགོ, GOH (gho); KEE-rah (kira)

Example: The fold of a gho above the belt makes a large pouch used like a pocket.

See also: Bhutan

Global South Asian Pop¶

South Asian music, film and entertainment that reaches audiences around the world, including people with no South Asian background.

Example: In 2023, "Naatu Naatu" from RRR won the Oscar for Best Original Song.

See also: Coke Studio, Streaming Era, Bhangra

Taught in Chapter 15: Cinema, Cricket, and Pop Culture.

Gross National Happiness¶

Bhutan's idea that a country should measure progress by the well-being of its people and environment, not only by the size of its economy. The phrase is credited to the fourth king, Jigme Singye Wangchuck, in the 1970s.

Example: The king said Gross National Happiness mattered more than gross domestic product.

See also: Bhutan

Taught in Chapter 20: Nepal, Bhutan, and the Maldives.

Gulf Migrant Workers¶

People from South Asia and other regions who work in the Gulf states, usually on temporary contracts without a path to citizenship. The wave began in the 1970s.

Example: Mass migration from Kerala to the Gulf between 1972 and 1983 is called the "Kerala Gulf Boom."

See also: Remittances, Transnational Families

Gupta Empire¶

An empire that ruled much of northern and central South Asia from about 320 to 550 CE, with kings from Magadha and Pataliputra again a major capital.

Example: Nalanda was founded during the reign of the Gupta emperor Kumaragupta I.

See also: Nalanda, Maurya Empire

Taught in Chapter 2: Ancient Roots.

Gurkhas¶

Soldiers from Nepal and Nepali-speaking communities in India who have served in the British Army since 1815 and today also serve in the Indian Army and other forces. Their name comes from the hill kingdom of Gorkha.

Script and sound: गोर्खा, GOR-khaa (Gorkha)

Example: Gorkha's king, Prithvi Narayan Shah, united the small states of Nepal in the 1700s.

See also: Nepal

Taught in Chapter 20: Nepal, Bhutan, and the Maldives.

Gurmukhi¶

The abugida used to write Punjabi in India and the Sikh scripture, the Guru Granth Sahib. Its name is often explained as "from the mouth of the Guru," and it has 35 base letters.

Script and sound: ਗੁਰਮੁਖੀ, GUR-moo-khee

Example: Simran learned the Gurmukhi letters at her gurdwara's Sunday school.

Guru Granth Sahib¶

The Sikh scripture, a collection of hymns that Sikhs honor as their living Guru. Guru Gobind Singh declared in 1708 that after him the scripture itself would be the Guru.

Example: The Guru Granth Sahib has 1,430 pages and includes hymns by Hindu bhakti saints such as Kabir.

See also: Sikhism, Gurmukhi

Guru Nanak¶

A spiritual teacher and poet from Punjab (1469 to 1539) whom Sikhs honor as the founder of Sikhism and the first of the ten Sikh Gurus. A guru is a teacher or guide.

Script and sound: ਗੁਰੂ, GOO-roo (Punjabi, "guru")

Example: Guru Nanak was born in Talwandi, now called Nankana Sahib, in Punjab, Pakistan.

See also: Sikhism, Guru Granth Sahib

Guru-Shishya Tradition¶

The practice of learning an art through a long, close relationship with a teacher, often lasting years, with lessons passed on orally phrase by phrase.

Script and sound: गुरु-शिष्य, GOO-roo SHISH-ya, "teacher-disciple"

Example: Muslim musicians often call a master teacher ustad, and pandit is a common title for Hindu masters.

See also: Gharana

Taught in Chapter 9: Music.

H¶

Halal¶

An Arabic word meaning "permitted," which in Islamic law describes food Muslims may eat. Pork, alcohol and blood are forbidden, and meat must come from a permitted animal slaughtered in a set way with the name of God said.

Script and sound: حلال, ha-LAHL

Example: Most vegetarian food is halal as long as it contains no alcohol or other forbidden ingredients.

See also: Dietary Rules and Faith, Eid al-Adha

Taught in Chapter 8: Food and the Table.

Harappa and Mohenjo-daro¶

The two best-known cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, both in present-day Pakistan: Harappa in Punjab, identified in 1921, and Mohenjo-daro in Sindh, identified in 1922.

Example: Dholavira and Rakhigarhi in India are other large Indus cities found after Harappa and Mohenjo-daro.

See also: Indus Valley Civilization

Taught in Chapter 2: Ancient Roots.

Heritage Language¶

A language a person learned at home from family while growing up in a place where a different language is the main one.

Example: Zara is a heritage speaker of Bangla: she understands her Nanu easily but answers in English.

See also: Code-Switching, Cultural Preservation

Himalaya¶

The mountain range that separates the plains of the subcontinent from the high Tibetan Plateau to the north. Its name comes from Sanskrit words meaning "abode of snow."

Script and sound: हिमालय, hi-MAA-lay, "abode of snow"

Example: Mount Everest, the highest mountain on Earth, stands in the Himalaya on the Nepal-China border.

See also: Mount Everest, Hindu Kush

Taught in Chapter 1: What Is South Asia?.

Hindi-Urdu (Hindustani)¶

The shared spoken language that underlies both Hindi and Urdu, which are two standard forms of it. Their everyday grammar and most common words are the same.

Script and sound: हिन्दी, HIN-dee (Hindi); اردو, OOR-doo (Urdu)

Example: One Bollywood song can be enjoyed in both Lahore and Lucknow because of Hindi-Urdu.

Hindu Kush¶

A mountain range about 800 km (500 miles) long that stretches from central and eastern Afghanistan into northwestern Pakistan. Its highest peak, Tirich Mir (7,708 m), is the highest mountain outside the Himalaya and Karakoram ranges.

Example: Tirich Mir, in Pakistan's Chitral District, is the tallest peak of the Hindu Kush.

See also: Himalaya, Khyber Pass

Taught in Chapter 1: What Is South Asia?.

Hindu Temple Architecture¶

The shared design traditions used to build Hindu temples as homes for a deity, centered on a small sanctum called the garbhagriha with a tower rising above it.

Example: Northern temples have a shikhara tower, and southern temples have a vimana.

See also: Stupa, Puja

Taught in Chapter 11: Art, Architecture, and Craft.

Hindu-Arabic Numerals¶

The ten digits 0 through 9 and the place value system that goes with them, which began in South Asia and reached Europe through scholars writing in Arabic. "Hindu" here is an old word meaning "Indian."

Example: The digits on a phone keypad are Hindu-Arabic numerals.

See also: Place Value System, Brahmi Numerals

Hinduism¶

A family of related traditions, beliefs and practices that grew in South Asia over thousands of years, with no single founder, no single holy book and no single central authority.

Example: India and Nepal are the world's two Hindu-majority countries, and large Hindu communities also live in Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Pakistan.

See also: Dharma, Karma and Rebirth, Puja, The Vedas

Hindustani Music¶

The classical music of the northern part of the subcontinent: northern and central India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal. It took shape in temples and in Sultanate and Mughal courts, blending older Indian traditions with ideas from Persian music.

Example: Tansen, a singer at Akbar's court, is remembered as one of the greatest Hindustani musicians.

See also: Carnatic Music, Gharana, Sitar, Tabla

Taught in Chapter 9: Music.

Holi¶

The spring festival of colors, held on the full moon of the month of Phalguna and the day after it, usually in March.

Script and sound: होली, HOH-lee

Example: On the first evening of Holi, communities light a bonfire called Holika Dahan.

See also: Diwali, Lunisolar Calendar

Hospitality Customs¶

The expected ways of welcoming and feeding guests. Across South Asia, being a generous host is a matter of family honor.

Example: The Sanskrit line atithi devo bhava, "the guest is like a god," is still quoted in India today.

See also: Chai, Langar, Respect for Elders

Taught in Chapter 8: Food and the Table.

Hyphenated Identity¶

Belonging to two or more cultures at once, sometimes written with a hyphen, as in "Indian-American." The hyphen has a contested history.

Example: In 2019 the Associated Press dropped the hyphen from terms like "Asian American."

See also: Cultural Identity, Third Culture Kids

Taught in Chapter 22: Bring It Home.

I¶

Ikat¶

A way of patterning cloth in which the threads are tied and dyed before they are woven, so the tied sections resist the dye. The word comes from Indonesia, where it means "to bind."

Script and sound: EE-kaht

Example: An ikat weaver may re-tie and re-dye the same threads several times to add new colors.

See also: Silk Weaving

Immigration Act of 1965¶

A US law, also called the Hart-Celler Act, signed on 3 October 1965, that ended the "national origins" quota system and gave preference to people with family in the US and people with needed skills.

Example: After 1965, South Asian doctors, engineers, scientists and students came first, followed by their families.

Indentured Labor¶

A system in which workers signed a contract, or indenture, to work for a set number of years, usually five, on a plantation far from home in return for passage, wages and housing. Indian workers called the contract girmit.

Example: Indentured laborers from India were taken to plantations in the Caribbean, Fiji and elsewhere.

See also: Indo-Caribbean Communities, Diaspora

India-Pakistan Rivalry¶

The competition between the national cricket teams of India and Pakistan, often called the most intense rivalry in the sport, shaped by politics since the teams first played Test matches in 1952.

Example: No cricket was played between the two teams from 1962 to 1977.

See also: Cricket

Taught in Chapter 15: Cinema, Cricket, and Pop Culture.

Indian Economy¶

The system of farms, factories, services and trade through which India's people make and buy goods. In 2025 its GDP was about 3.96 trillion US dollars, the sixth-largest in the world (World Bank), but income per person stayed modest.

Example: India's total output is close to the United Kingdom's, but it is shared among far more people.

See also: Indian Rupee

Taught in Chapter 17: India.

Indian National Congress¶

A political party founded on 28 December 1885 in Bombay (now Mumbai) that became the largest organization in the movement for independence from Britain and wanted a single independent India for people of all religions.

Example: Jawaharlal Nehru, a Congress leader, became a leader of independent India.

See also: Mahatma Gandhi, All-India Muslim League

Taught in Chapter 4: Colonialism, Independence, and Partition.

Indian Ocean¶

The third-largest of the world's five oceans, covering about 70.6 million square km and bounded by Asia to the north, Africa to the west and Australia to the east. It is the warmest ocean, and monsoons shape the climate all around it.

Example: The Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal are both arms of the Indian Ocean.

See also: Bay of Bengal, Indian Ocean Trade

Taught in Chapter 1: What Is South Asia?.

Indian Ocean Trade¶

The network of sea routes and ports that linked South Asia with East Africa, Arabia, Persia, Southeast Asia and China for many centuries. Sailors rode the monsoon winds one way and returned on the reverse winds months later.

Example: Merchants were using the seasonal monsoon winds to cross the Indian Ocean at least as far back as Roman times.

See also: Monsoon, Indian Ocean, European Traders

Indian Rupee¶

India's currency, written ₹ and divided into 100 paise. The word comes from the Hindi rupaya, from a Sanskrit word for wrought silver.

Script and sound: रुपया, ROOP-yah

Example: Pakistan, Nepal and Sri Lanka also call their currencies rupees.

See also: Indian Economy

Taught in Chapter 17: India.

Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)¶

India's national space agency, which builds and launches rockets and satellites and sends missions to the Moon and beyond. It took the name ISRO in 1969 and is headquartered in Bengaluru.

Example: ISRO launches its rockets from Sriharikota, an island off Andhra Pradesh.

See also: Aryabhata

Taught in Chapter 17: India.

Indian Subcontinent¶

An older, physical term for the wedge of land south of the Himalaya that juts into the Indian Ocean between the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, sitting on its own tectonic plate. It describes the land, while South Asia names the region's countries.

Example: India, Pakistan and Bangladesh cover most of the subcontinent, while Afghanistan is usually not counted as part of it.

See also: South Asia, Himalaya

Taught in Chapter 1: What Is South Asia?.

Indo-Aryan Languages¶

The South Asian branch of the Indo-European family, descended from Old Indo-Aryan, the language of the Vedas, through everyday languages called Prakrits.

Example: Hindi, Urdu, Bangla, Punjabi, Nepali, Sinhala and Dhivehi are all Indo-Aryan languages.

See also: Language Family, Sanskrit, Iranian Languages

Indo-Aryan Migration¶

The explanation most scholars accept for how Indo-Aryan languages reached South Asia: speakers of these languages moved into the northwest of the subcontinent from Central Asia in gradual waves after about 2000 BCE, and their languages spread and mixed with those already there over centuries.

Example: Linguistic and genetic evidence supports gradual migration, while the older "invasion" model is rejected, and some in India dispute migration.

See also: Indo-Aryan Languages, Vedic Period

Taught in Chapter 2: Ancient Roots.

Indo-Caribbean Communities¶

The descendants of South Asian migrants, mostly indentured laborers, living in the Caribbean, especially in Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago, and Suriname.

Example: In Guyana's 2012 census about 40% of people were Indo-Guyanese.

See also: Indentured Labor, Diaspora

Indo-Gangetic Plain¶

The flat, fertile lowland of about 700,000 square km that stretches across the north of the subcontinent from Pakistan through northern India and southern Nepal to almost all of Bangladesh. It is named for the Indus and Ganga river systems that drain it.

Example: The rich soil of the Indo-Gangetic Plain makes it one of the most heavily farmed and densely populated areas of South Asia.

See also: Indus River, Ganges (Ganga) River

Taught in Chapter 1: What Is South Asia?.

Indo-Persian Culture¶

The blend of Persian and South Asian languages, literature, art, architecture, music, food and manners that developed in Muslim-ruled courts and cities of South Asia.

Example: Persian was the official language of the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire, so officials and poets of every faith learned it.

Indus River¶

A river about 3,180 km (1,980 miles) long that rises on the Tibetan Plateau, flows through the disputed Kashmir region, and runs the full length of Pakistan to the Arabian Sea near Karachi. It collects five large tributaries in the Punjab.

Example: The Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej join the Indus, which is why Punjab means "land of five rivers."

Taught in Chapter 1: What Is South Asia?.

Indus Script¶

The set of signs that Indus people carved on seals, pottery, tools and small tablets. It has not been deciphered, so nobody can read it with confidence.

Example: Many small square stone seals show an animal carved beneath a short line of Indus Script signs.

Taught in Chapter 2: Ancient Roots.

Indus Valley Civilization¶

A Bronze Age civilization along the Indus River and nearby rivers, mostly in present-day Pakistan and northwestern India, whose mature city-building phase lasted from about 2600 to 1900 BCE. It is also called the Harappan Civilization.

Example: Planned cities with brick drains, such as Mohenjo-daro, belong to the Indus Valley Civilization.

Taught in Chapter 2: Ancient Roots.

The agreement of an interview subject who understands what is being done, why, how their words will be used and who may see them, and who freely agrees, with the right to skip questions, stop or change their mind.

Example: Asking an elder's permission before recording an interview is part of informed consent.

See also: Oral History

Taught in Chapter 22: Bring It Home.

Intergenerational Dialogue¶

Conversation between people of different generations, such as grandparents, parents and teens, in which each side learns from the other.

Example: A teen interviewing a grandparent about festivals back home is intergenerational dialogue.

See also: Oral History, Respect for Elders

Taught in Chapter 22: Bring It Home.

Iranian Languages¶

A branch of Indo-European closely related to Indo-Aryan but separate from it. In South Asia the major ones are Pashto, Dari and Balochi.

Example: Pashto is the second-largest mother tongue in Pakistan, after Punjabi.

See also: Dari and Pashto, Indo-Aryan Languages

Islam in South Asia¶

The faith and culture of South Asia's Muslims, who form one of the largest Muslim populations on Earth. Islam arrived over many centuries through traders, Sufi teachers and conquest, and most South Asian Muslims descend from people who lived in the region long before.

Example: Pakistan, Bangladesh, Afghanistan and the Maldives are Muslim-majority countries.

Islamabad¶

The capital of Pakistan, a planned city built from 1961 on the Potwar Plateau below the Margala Hills, next to Rawalpindi. Its name means "City of Islam" or "City of Peace."

Script and sound: is-LAHM-ah-bahd

Example: Before Islamabad, Pakistan's capital was the port city of Karachi.

See also: Islamic Republic of Pakistan

Islamic Lunar Calendar¶

A purely lunar calendar of 12 months, with a year of 354 or 355 days and no leap month, that Muslims use for religious dates. It is also called the Hijri calendar.

Example: Because the year is shorter than the solar year, Ramadan starts about 11 days earlier in the Gregorian calendar each year.

Islamic Republic of Pakistan¶

The full name of Pakistan: a federal, parliamentary republic in which Islam is the state religion. The name was adopted in Pakistan's first constitution in 1956, and the current constitution dates from 1973.

Example: Pakistan's prime minister is chosen by the elected National Assembly.

See also: Islamabad, Provinces of Pakistan

J¶

Jainism¶

A faith from South Asia that teaches that every living being has a soul, and that souls can be freed from the cycle of rebirth through non-violence, self-discipline and right knowledge.

Example: Jains honor 24 tirthankaras, the 24th of whom, Mahavira, lived in what is now Bihar around the time of the Buddha.

See also: Ahimsa, Rise of Buddhism and Jainism

Jali¶

A stone screen carved with holes in a geometric, floral or calligraphic pattern that lets in air and filtered light while blocking harsh sun and giving privacy.

Script and sound: जाली, JAA-lee, "net"

Example: The marble screens of the Taj Mahal are carved jalis.

See also: Mughal Architecture

Taught in Chapter 11: Art, Architecture, and Craft.

Jamdani¶

A fine, sheer cotton cloth from the Dhaka region of Bangladesh with patterns woven directly into it on a hand loom, using a discontinuous weft technique.

Script and sound: জামদানী, JAHM-dah-nee

Example: A single jamdani saree can take weeks or months to weave.

See also: Cotton in South Asia, Saree

Jataka Tales¶

Buddhist "birth stories" about the earlier lives of the Buddha, in which the future Buddha appears as a person or an animal and shows qualities like generosity, patience and courage.

Script and sound: जातक, JAA-tuh-kuh

Example: The Theravada collection in Pali contains 547 Jatakas.

See also: Buddhism, Panchatantra

Jewish Communities¶

The old Jewish groups that settled in India, especially on the west coast, long before modern times. Jews believe in one God and a covenant between God and the Jewish people, and they worship in synagogues.

Example: The Paradesi Synagogue in Kochi, built in 1568, belongs to the Cochin Jews of Kerala.

See also: Religious Pluralism

Joint Family¶

A household in which several generations and branches of one family live together and often share a kitchen, money and property. In the traditional form, married sons stay in their parents' home with their wives and children.

Example: In India, the law recognizes a "Hindu undivided family" as a unit for income tax.

See also: Kinship Terms, Respect for Elders

Taught in Chapter 13: Family, Names, and Life Events.

K¶

Kabaddi¶

A contact team sport, seven players a side, that combines tag and wrestling: a raider enters the other team's half, tags defenders and tries to return without being tackled.

Script and sound: Hindi कबड्डी, Bangla কাবাডি, kuh-BUD-dee

Example: Kabaddi was named the national sport of Bangladesh in 1972.

See also: Field Hockey

Taught in Chapter 15: Cinema, Cricket, and Pop Culture.

Kabir¶

A 15th-century poet-saint from Varanasi, traditionally said to be raised by a Muslim weaver family, who composed songs and sharp couplets in everyday Hindi questioning empty ritual in both Hinduism and Islam.

Example: Some of Kabir's hymns are included in the Guru Granth Sahib.

See also: Bhakti Movement, Guru Granth Sahib

Kabul¶

The capital and largest city of Afghanistan, about 1,800 m (5,900 ft) above sea level in a mountain-ringed valley along the Kabul River, which flows east to join the Indus.

Script and sound: کابل, KAH-bool

Example: People have lived at or near Kabul for about 3,500 years.

See also: Afghanistan, Khyber Pass

Kalidasa¶

A poet and playwright who wrote in Sanskrit, probably in the fourth to fifth century CE during the time of the Gupta kings. Very little is known about his life.

Example: Kalidasa's surviving works include three plays and several poems.

See also: Gupta Empire, Sanskrit

Kandyan Dance¶

A dance from the hill country around Kandy in Sri Lanka's central highlands, called Uda Rata Natum, "up-country dance," in Sinhala.

Example: Kandyan dancers perform in the city's great yearly procession, the Perahera.

See also: Folk Dance, Sri Lanka

Taught in Chapter 10: Dance and Theater.

Karma and Rebirth¶

The belief that a person's actions and intentions have effects in this life and in future lives, and that the soul is reborn again and again in a cycle called samsara. In many Hindu traditions, the highest goal is moksha, release from that cycle.

Script and sound: कर्म, KUR-muh, "action" (karma)

Example: In a 2021 Pew survey of India, 77% of Hindus and 77% of Muslims said they believe in karma.

See also: Dharma, Hinduism, Buddhism

Kashmir Dispute¶

The continuing disagreement, mainly between India and Pakistan, over who should control the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir. Each side states its own position on the territory.

Example: Maps in this book show Kashmir as disputed rather than drawing an official border.

See also: Princely States, Partition of 1947

Taught in Chapter 4: Colonialism, Independence, and Partition.

Kathak¶

A classical dance from northern India that grew from traveling storytellers and was later danced in royal courts, including Mughal courts. Its name comes from katha, "story."

Script and sound: KUH-thuk

Example: Kathak is danced today in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh.

See also: Classical Dance, Indo-Persian Culture

Taught in Chapter 10: Dance and Theater.

Kathakali¶

A classical "story play" from Kerala that developed from older temple and folk arts and grew up mainly in the courts and theaters of local kings.

Script and sound: കഥകളി, KUH-thuh-kuh-lee

Example: Kathakali performers wear color-coded makeup that shows what kind of character they play.

See also: Classical Dance, Mohiniyattam

Taught in Chapter 10: Dance and Theater.

Kathmandu Valley¶

A bowl-shaped valley in central Nepal, about 1,400 m above sea level, holding Kathmandu, Patan and Bhaktapur, which has been the country's political and cultural center for centuries.

Example: Before the 1700s, the word "Nepal" meant just the Kathmandu Valley.

See also: Nepal

Taught in Chapter 20: Nepal, Bhutan, and the Maldives.

Kazi Nazrul Islam¶

A Bengali poet, songwriter and journalist (1899 to 1976) honored as the national poet of Bangladesh, a title made official in December 2024.

Example: His 1922 poem "Bidrohi" ("The Rebel") made him famous as a voice against injustice.

See also: Rabindranath Tagore, Bengali Language

Kerala School¶

A line of astronomers and mathematicians in Kerala, beginning in the 1300s with Madhava of Sangamagrama, who found ways to write important quantities as infinite series.

Example: Jyesthadeva's Yuktibhasha, written in Malayalam around 1550, recorded the Kerala School's methods.

See also: Aryabhata, Srinivasa Ramanujan

Khadi¶

Cloth that is both hand-spun and hand-woven, made from cotton, silk or wool, important for the role it played in India's freedom movement.

Script and sound: खादी, KHAH-dee

Example: In the freedom movement, many Indians wore khadi and refused foreign cloth.

See also: Mahatma Gandhi, Cotton in South Asia

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa¶

Pakistan's northwestern province, bordering Afghanistan, with Peshawar as its capital. Until 2010 it was called the North-West Frontier Province.

Script and sound: KY-ber pukh-TOON-khwah

Example: The name joins "Khyber," after the pass, and "Pakhtunkhwa," roughly "land of the Pashtuns."

See also: Khyber Pass, Provinces of Pakistan

Khyber Pass¶

The mountain pass, about 53 km (33 miles) long, that connects Peshawar in Pakistan with Kabul in Afghanistan, crossing the hills at the end of the Spin Ghar range.

Script and sound: KY-ber

Example: The pass runs from near Jamrud, Pakistan, to the border post of Torkham.

See also: Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Kabul, Hindu Kush

Kinship Terms¶

The words a language uses for relatives. Many South Asian languages use separate words for relatives on the father's and mother's sides and for older and younger relatives.

Example: Zara calls her maternal grandmother Nanu, a word that names her mother's mother specifically.

See also: Joint Family, Respect for Elders

Taught in Chapter 13: Family, Names, and Life Events.

Kolam¶

A line drawing made with white rice flour on the swept, dampened ground outside a home, traditionally drawn each morning before dawn by women in Tamil Nadu. The Tamil word means "form" or "beauty."

Script and sound: கோலம், KOH-lum

Example: In Telangana and Andhra Pradesh the same practice is called muggu.

See also: Rangoli

Taught in Chapter 11: Art, Architecture, and Craft.

Kuchipudi¶

A classical dance named after a village in Andhra Pradesh that began as a dance-drama performed by troupes of men who played every role.

Script and sound: కూచిపూడి, KOO-chee-POO-dee

Example: Arjun Reddy, from a Telugu-speaking family, performs Kuchipudi.

See also: Classical Dance

Taught in Chapter 10: Dance and Theater.

Kurta¶

A loose tunic, traditionally collarless, with straight sleeves and side seams left open at the bottom, worn by both men and women.

Script and sound: कुरता, KOOR-tah

Example: Lucknow is famous for kurtas decorated with chikankari, delicate white embroidery.

See also: Shalwar Kameez

Kushan Empire¶

An empire founded by newcomers from Central Asia that ruled much of today's Afghanistan, Pakistan and northern India from about the 1st to the 3rd century CE. Its most famous ruler, Kanishka, came to the throne around 127 CE.

Example: Kanishka's main capital was Purushapura, today's Peshawar in Pakistan.

See also: Maurya Empire, Gupta Empire

Taught in Chapter 2: Ancient Roots.

L¶

Lahore¶

Pakistan's second-largest city and the capital of Punjab province, on the Ravi River, which has been a royal city under the Ghaznavids, the Mughals and the Sikh ruler Ranjit Singh.

Script and sound: لاہور, lah-HOR

Example: Ayesha Qureshi's family comes from Lahore.

See also: Punjab Region, Pakistani Cinema

Langar¶

The free community kitchen of a gurdwara, where volunteers cook and serve a vegetarian meal to anyone who comes, regardless of religion, caste, gender or wealth. Everyone sits together on the floor as equals.

Script and sound: ਲੰਗਰ, LUN-gur

Example: Sikh tradition says the emperor Akbar sat and ate langar with ordinary people before meeting the third Guru.

See also: Sikhism, Guru Nanak, Hospitality Customs

Language Family¶

A group of languages that all descend from one older ancestor language. Linguists identify family members by comparing basic words and grammar.

Example: English and Swedish are both in the Indo-European family, which is why Swedish tre and English three sound alike.

Language Movement of 1952¶

A protest movement in East Bengal demanding that Bangla be recognized as a national language of Pakistan, which peaked on 21 February 1952 when police in Dhaka opened fire on student protesters.

Example: The Shaheed Minar in Dhaka honors the Language Martyrs killed on 21 February 1952.

See also: Ekushey February, Bengali Language

Taught in Chapter 4: Colonialism, Independence, and Partition.

Life-Cycle Rituals¶

Ceremonies that mark turning points in a life, such as a birth, coming of age, a wedding or a death. In South Asia they are shaped by faith, region and family.

Example: In Hindu tradition, the samskaras are the life-cycle rituals.

Taught in Chapter 13: Family, Names, and Life Events.

Linguistic States¶

States whose borders were drawn so that most people inside share one main language, which usually becomes the state's official language.

Example: Most of India's states, such as Tamil Nadu and Gujarat, are linguistic states.

Taught in Chapter 17: India.

Losar¶

The new year of the Tibetan lunisolar calendar, usually in February or March, celebrated for up to 15 days. It is observed in Bhutan and by Sherpa, Tibetan and other Himalayan communities.

Script and sound: ལོ་གསར, LOH-sar, "new year" (Tibetan)

Example: Families clean their homes, visit monasteries and hang new prayer flags for Losar.

See also: Lunisolar Calendar, Sherpa People, Bhutan

Lumbini¶

A pilgrimage site in the Terai of southern Nepal that Buddhist tradition honors as the birthplace of Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha.

Example: Lumbini's Sacred Garden includes the Maya Devi Temple and a sacred pond.

See also: Buddhism, Pilgrimage

Taught in Chapter 20: Nepal, Bhutan, and the Maldives.

Lungi¶

A length of cloth worn by men around the waist like a skirt, without passing between the legs, usually cotton in checks or stripes.

Script and sound: লুঙ্গি, LOONG-gee

Example: In Bangladesh the lungi is the most commonly seen everyday clothing for men.

See also: Dhoti

Lunisolar Calendar¶

A calendar whose months follow the moon but whose years are kept in step with the sun and seasons by adding a leap month from time to time.

Example: In many Hindu calendars the extra month, adhik maas, is added about once every 32.5 months.

M¶

Madhubani Painting¶

A style of bold, colorful painting, also called Mithila painting, from the Mithila region of northern Bihar and southern Nepal, traditionally made by women on the mud walls and floors of their homes.

Example: Madhubani artists fill every space with pattern and outline figures in double lines.

See also: Rangoli

Taught in Chapter 11: Art, Architecture, and Craft.

Mahabharata¶

A Sanskrit epic, "the great story of the Bharatas," about a struggle for a throne between two sets of royal cousins, the Pandavas and the Kauravas, that ends in a great war at Kurukshetra. It is traditionally credited to the sage Vyasa.

Script and sound: महाभारत, muh-haa-BHAA-ruh-tuh

Example: With more than 100,000 verses in its longest version, it is one of the longest poems ever composed.

See also: Bhagavad Gita, Ramayana

Mahajanapadas¶

The sixteen large kingdoms and republics that ruled northern South Asia from about the 6th to the 4th century BCE. The word combines maha, "great," and janapada, a territory where a people had settled.

Script and sound: महाजनपद, muh-HAA-jun-uh-puh-duh, "great realms"

Example: The Mahajanapadas stretched from Gandhara in the northwest to Anga in today's Bihar.

Taught in Chapter 2: Ancient Roots.

Mahatma Gandhi¶

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (1869 to 1948), a lawyer from Porbandar in present-day Gujarat who became the most famous leader of the Indian independence movement by leading mass campaigns of nonviolent resistance. Mahatma is an honorific meaning "great soul."

Example: Gandhi first developed his methods in South Africa before returning to India in 1915.

See also: Satyagraha, Indian National Congress

Taught in Chapter 4: Colonialism, Independence, and Partition.

Maldives¶

An island country of about 530,000 people (2025, World Bank) in the Indian Ocean southwest of India and Sri Lanka, made up of roughly 1,190 small coral islands. It is the smallest South Asian country by population and land area.

Example: All the Maldives' land adds up to only about 298 square km, spread over about 90,000 square km of ocean.

See also: Atolls, Malé, Sea-Level Rise

Taught in Chapter 20: Nepal, Bhutan, and the Maldives.

Malé¶

The capital and largest city of the Maldives, built on a tiny island in North Malé Atoll and one of the most densely packed places on Earth.

Script and sound: MAA-lay

Example: In the 2022 census about 212,000 people, roughly two in five Maldivians, lived in the city of Malé.

See also: Maldives, Atolls

Taught in Chapter 20: Nepal, Bhutan, and the Maldives.

Manipuri Dance¶

A classical dance from Manipur in northeastern India, part of the culture of the Meitei people, whose best-known form is the Raas Leela.

Example: The Meitei king Bhagyachandra is credited with designing Manipuri Dance's famous costume.

See also: Classical Dance, Northeast India

Taught in Chapter 10: Dance and Theater.

Maratha Empire¶

A state founded by Marathi-speaking warriors in western India that grew in the 1700s into one of the largest powers in South Asia. It is also called the Maratha Confederacy.

Example: Its founder, Shivaji, was crowned Chhatrapati at the fort of Raigad in 1674.

See also: Mughal Empire

Masala¶

A mixture of spices, whole or ground; the word means "spices" or "seasoning." It can also mean a wet paste of onion, ginger, garlic, tomato and spices that forms the base of a dish.

Script and sound: मसाला, ma-SAH-lah

Example: Garam masala is a warm blend that often includes cinnamon, cloves, cardamom, cumin and black pepper.

See also: Tadka, Chai

Taught in Chapter 8: Food and the Table.

Maurya Empire¶

The first empire to rule most of the Indian subcontinent, lasting from about 321 to 185 BCE with its capital at Pataliputra.

Example: Ashoka, the third Maurya emperor, ruled an empire stretching from present-day Afghanistan to present-day Bangladesh.

See also: Ashoka, Edicts of Ashoka

Taught in Chapter 2: Ancient Roots.

Mehndi¶

The art of decorating the skin, usually hands and feet, with a paste of powdered henna leaves that leaves a reddish-brown stain for about one to three weeks. It is also called henna.

Script and sound: مہندی, MEH-hn-dee (Urdu)

Example: Zara's cousins line up on Chand Raat to have mehndi patterns drawn before Eid.

See also: Mehndi Night and Sangeet, Eid al-Fitr

Taught in Chapter 11: Art, Architecture, and Craft.

Mehndi Night and Sangeet¶

Two pre-wedding celebrations popular in many North Indian, Pakistani and diaspora families: a mehndi night, when the bride's hands and feet are decorated with henna, and a sangeet, a night of singing and dancing.

Script and sound: संगीत, sun-GEET, "music" (sangeet)

Example: At many sangeets today, both sides of the family stage dance performances to film songs.

See also: Mehndi, Weddings

Taught in Chapter 13: Family, Names, and Life Events.

Mehrgarh¶

An archaeological site on the Kachhi Plain in Balochistan, Pakistan, near the Bolan Pass, that is one of the earliest known places in South Asia where people farmed and herded animals. French archaeologists Jean-François and Catherine Jarrige discovered it in 1974.

Example: Finds at Mehrgarh show farming villages in the region long before the Indus cities were built.

See also: Indus Valley Civilization, Balochistan

Taught in Chapter 2: Ancient Roots.

Microfinance¶

The practice of giving very small loans and other banking services to poor people, especially women, who have no property to offer as security and cannot borrow from ordinary banks.

Example: A small loan might let someone buy a cow, a sewing machine or stock for a shop.

See also: People's Republic of Bangladesh

Mirza Ghalib¶

The most famous ghazal poet in the Urdu language (1797 to 1869), born in Agra, who lived most of his life in Delhi and wrote in both Urdu and Persian.

Example: Ghalib lived through the violence of 1857 in Delhi.

See also: Ghazal, Indo-Persian Culture

Mithai¶

South Asian sweets, the kind sold in sweet shops and boxed for guests, many made from milk, fresh cheese curds or thickened milk.

Script and sound: मिठाई, mi-THAI; মিষ্টি, MISH-tee (Bangla)

Example: Boxes of mithai are shared with neighbors at Diwali and Eid.

See also: Diwali, Hospitality Customs

Taught in Chapter 8: Food and the Table.

Model Minority Myth¶

The stereotype that Asian Americans, including South Asian Americans, are all successful, wealthy, highly educated and free of problems, often used to compare them favorably with other minority groups. It hides real differences and struggles.

Example: Assuming every South Asian student finds math easy reflects the model minority myth.

See also: Stereotypes, Representation in Media

Mohiniyattam¶

Kerala's second classical dance, traditionally a solo dance by women, named after Mohini, the enchanting female form of the Hindu god Vishnu.

Script and sound: mo-hi-nee-YAHT-tum

Example: Mohiniyattam dancers wear an ivory-white sari with a gold border.

See also: Kathakali, Classical Dance

Taught in Chapter 10: Dance and Theater.

Monsoon¶

A wind that reverses direction with the seasons, blowing from the southwest for about half the year and from the northeast for the other half along the Indian Ocean coasts. In everyday speech, the rainy season that the southwest winds bring in summer.

Script and sound: বর্ষা, BOR-sha, "rain" or "the rainy season" (Bangla)

Example: Farmers across South Asia time their planting to the arrival of the summer monsoon rains.

See also: Indian Ocean Trade, Rivers and Floods

Taught in Chapter 1: What Is South Asia?.

Mount Everest¶

The highest mountain on Earth, 8,848.86 m (29,031.7 ft) above sea level by the 2020 China-Nepal measurement, with its summit on the border between Nepal and China.

Script and sound: सगरमाथा, Sagarmatha, suh-gur-MAA-thaa

Example: In Tibetan, Mount Everest is called Chomolungma.

See also: Himalaya, Sherpa People

Taught in Chapter 20: Nepal, Bhutan, and the Maldives.

Mudra¶

A hand gesture with a set shape and set meanings, used in dance. In Hindi the word can also mean a seal or a stamp.

Script and sound: मुद्रा, MOO-druh

Example: The Abhinaya Darpana describes 28 single-hand gestures.

See also: Bharatanatyam, Rasa

Taught in Chapter 10: Dance and Theater.

Mughal Architecture¶

The building style that developed under the Mughal emperors, blending Persian and Central Asian ideas such as domes, arched gateways and walled gardens with Indian building skills and decoration.

Example: The charbagh, a garden divided into four parts by water channels, is a signature of Mughal Architecture.

See also: Taj Mahal, Jali, Calligraphy

Taught in Chapter 11: Art, Architecture, and Craft.

Mughal Empire¶

A Muslim-ruled empire, founded by a dynasty from Central Asia, that ruled much of South Asia from 1526 until it formally ended in 1857. Its founder, Babur, descended from the conqueror Timur.

Example: Akbar and Shah Jahan, the builder of the Taj Mahal, were Mughal emperors.

See also: Akbar, Taj Mahal, Mughal Architecture

Mughal Miniature Painting¶

The style of small, detailed paintings made in Mughal imperial workshops to illustrate books or fill albums. It grew out of Persian miniature painting and mixed with the styles of Indian painters.

Example: Under Akbar, senior artists drew outlines and junior artists filled in the colors.

See also: Indo-Persian Culture, Mughal Empire

Taught in Chapter 11: Art, Architecture, and Craft.

Muhammad Ali Jinnah¶

A lawyer from Karachi (1876 to 1948) who led the All-India Muslim League and became the founder and first Governor-General of Pakistan.

Example: Jinnah's "two-nation theory" argued that Muslims and Hindus in South Asia were two nations.

Taught in Chapter 4: Colonialism, Independence, and Partition.

N¶

Nalanda¶

A great Buddhist monastery and center of learning in today's Bihar, India, founded around 427 CE under the Gupta emperor Kumaragupta I, which operated for roughly 800 years.

Example: Students traveled from across Asia to study at Nalanda.

See also: Gupta Empire, Buddhism

Taught in Chapter 2: Ancient Roots.

Naming Traditions¶

The customs a family follows to choose a child's name: who chooses, when, and what the name should mean or sound like.

Example: Many Sikh families choose a child's name from the Guru Granth Sahib, and many Bengali children have both a "good name" and a "call name."

See also: Surnames, Kinship Terms

Taught in Chapter 13: Family, Names, and Life Events.

National Symbols of India¶

The official emblems, chosen by the government, that stand for India as a whole, including a flag, an emblem, an anthem, a song, an animal, a bird and a flower.

Script and sound: तिरंगा, ti-RUNG-ah (tiranga, the national flag)

Example: The tiger is India's national animal, and the peacock has been its national bird since 1963.

See also: Republic of India, Rabindranath Tagore

Taught in Chapter 17: India.

Natya Shastra¶

A Sanskrit handbook on the performing arts, "treatise on drama," credited by tradition to the sage Bharata. Most scholars place its first complete version between about 200 BCE and 200 CE.

Script and sound: नाट्य शास्त्र, NAHT-yuh SHAHS-truh

Example: The idea of rasa in dance and theater comes from the Natya Shastra.

See also: Rasa, Classical Dance

Taught in Chapter 10: Dance and Theater.

Navaratri and Durga Puja¶

Two names for the great autumn festival of the goddess. Navaratri means "nine nights" and begins the day after the new moon of Ashvin; the tenth day is Vijayadashami, often called Dussehra.

Script and sound: नवरात्रि, nuh-vuh-RAHT-ree (Navaratri)

Example: Durga Puja in Kolkata was added to UNESCO's cultural heritage lists in 2021.

See also: Garba, Dashain and Tihar, Puja

Nepal¶

A landlocked country of about 30 million people (2025, World Bank) on the southern slope of the Himalaya, between India and China's Tibet region, with Kathmandu as its capital.

Script and sound: नेपाल, nay-PAAL

Example: Nepal is one of the world's two Hindu-majority countries.

Taught in Chapter 20: Nepal, Bhutan, and the Maldives.

Nepal's Republic (2008)¶

The end of Nepal's monarchy, when the Constituent Assembly voted on 28 May 2008 to declare Nepal a federal democratic republic. Nepal's new constitution came into effect on 20 September 2015.

Example: The royal palace in Kathmandu became a museum after the last king left in June 2008.

See also: Nepal

Taught in Chapter 20: Nepal, Bhutan, and the Maldives.

New Delhi¶

The capital of India and seat of its national government, home to Parliament, Rashtrapati Bhavan and the Supreme Court, inside the larger city and union territory of Delhi on the Yamuna River.

Example: The British Raj moved its capital from Calcutta to New Delhi.

See also: Parliament of India, Republic of India

Taught in Chapter 17: India.

Nikah¶

The Islamic marriage contract and ceremony, in which the bride and groom each give consent before witnesses and the groom agrees to give the bride the mahr, a gift that belongs to her alone.

Script and sound: نکاح, ni-KAAH

Example: In Pakistan and Bangladesh the couple and witnesses sign a marriage contract called a nikah nama.

See also: Weddings, Anand Karaj

Taught in Chapter 13: Family, Names, and Life Events.

Northeast India¶

The easternmost region of India, made up of eight states, the "Seven Sisters" plus Sikkim, connected to the rest of India by the narrow Siliguri Corridor and bordering five countries.

Example: Assam, Manipur and Nagaland are states of Northeast India.

See also: Tibeto-Burman Languages, Manipuri Dance

Taught in Chapter 17: India.

Nowruz¶

The Persian New Year, "new day," which begins at the March equinox on 20 or 21 March. In Afghanistan it is called Nawruz.

Script and sound: نوروز, noh-ROOZ

Example: Afghan families prepare haft mewa, a dish of seven dried fruits and nuts soaked in water.

See also: Afghanistan, Zoroastrians (Parsis)

O¶

Odissi¶

A classical dance from Odisha on India's east coast, whose poses can be seen in the dancing figures carved on the state's old temples.

Script and sound: oh-DIS-ee

Example: The Sun Temple at Konark shows carved poses that Odissi dancers still use.

See also: Classical Dance

Taught in Chapter 10: Dance and Theater.

Onam¶

The harvest festival of Kerala, celebrated by Malayali families of many faiths in the Malayalam month of Chingam (August to September). In Kerala tradition it marks the yearly return of the generous king Mahabali.

Script and sound: ഓണം, OH-num

Example: Families make a pookalam, a round carpet of flower petals, and share a sadya feast.

See also: Pongal and Makar Sankranti

Oral History¶

The practice of recording people's memories of their own lives, in their own words, and keeping those recordings or notes so others can learn from them later.

Example: Recording Nanu's memories of growing up in Chattogram creates an oral history.

Taught in Chapter 22: Bring It Home.

Oral Tradition¶

The passing of stories, poems, songs and knowledge from person to person by speaking, singing and memorizing, often across many generations, instead of by writing them down.

Script and sound: कथा, KUH-thaa, "story" (Hindi); গল্প, GOL-po, "story" (Bangla)

Example: Zara's Nanu telling her a golpo she heard as a child is part of an oral tradition.

See also: Oral History, Ramayana, Panchatantra

P¶

Pakistani Cinema¶

The film industry of Pakistan, making films mainly in Urdu and Punjabi, with Pashto films made in Peshawar. Its old center in Lahore was nicknamed "Lollywood," and Karachi has since become a major center.

Example: Many filmmakers moved from Lahore's studios to Karachi after about 2000.

See also: Pakistani Dramas, Regional Cinemas

Taught in Chapter 15: Cinema, Cricket, and Pop Culture.

Pakistani Dramas¶

Pakistani television serials, usually in Urdu, known for family stories, romance and social issues, and for running a set number of episodes instead of going on for years.

Example: Fans in India and abroad watch Pakistani dramas online with subtitles.

See also: Pakistani Cinema, Streaming Era

Taught in Chapter 15: Cinema, Cricket, and Pop Culture.

Panchatantra¶

A Sanskrit collection of animal fables, "five treatises," set inside a frame story in which a wise teacher uses clever tales to teach three princes how to live and rule wisely. Its author is unknown.

Script and sound: पञ्चतन्त्र, PUNCH-uh-TUN-truh

Example: In each Panchatantra tale, animals argue, scheme and make friends, and the story ends with a lesson about trust or good judgment.

See also: Jataka Tales, Oral Tradition

Panini's Grammar¶

The Ashtadhyayi, "eight chapters," a complete description of the Sanskrit language in just under 4,000 short rules called sutras, by Panini of Shalatula near Attock in present-day Pakistan.

Example: Scholars date Panini anywhere from about the 7th to the 4th century BCE.

See also: Sanskrit

Parliament of India¶

India's national legislature, made up of two houses and the president, which makes the country's laws. The lower house, the Lok Sabha, has 543 elected seats.

Script and sound: लोकसभा, LOKE-sub-ha (Lok Sabha)

Example: Members of the Lok Sabha are directly elected by voters at least every five years.

See also: Elections in India, New Delhi

Taught in Chapter 17: India.

Partition Literature¶

Poetry, fiction and memoir written about the 1947 Partition and its aftermath, in Urdu, Hindi, Punjabi, Bangla, Sindhi, English and other languages, often focused on ordinary people and loss.

Example: Short stories by Saadat Hasan Manto are classics of Partition Literature.

See also: Partition of 1947, Partition Migration

Partition Migration¶

The movement of millions of people across the new India-Pakistan borders in 1947 and the years after, with Hindus and Sikhs moving into India and Muslims moving into Pakistan.

Example: In Punjab, people traveled in columns many kilometers long, on bullock carts and on overcrowded trains.

See also: Partition of 1947, Radcliffe Line

Taught in Chapter 4: Colonialism, Independence, and Partition.

Partition of 1947¶

The division of British India into two independent countries, India and Pakistan, in August 1947, largely along religious lines, with Muslim-majority areas becoming Pakistan.

Example: Pakistan celebrates its independence on 14 August and India on 15 August.

Taught in Chapter 4: Colonialism, Independence, and Partition.

Pashmina¶

The very fine wool from the soft undercoat of goats that live high in the Himalaya, and the shawls made from it. The word comes from pashm, Persian for wool.

Script and sound: पश्मीना, push-MEE-nah

Example: A shawl woven from pashmina wool is one of the region's most prized textiles.

See also: Himalaya

Pashtunwali¶

The traditional, unwritten code of honor, hospitality and justice that guides Pashtun social life. It is a matter of custom, not religious law, and is older than Islam in the region.

Script and sound: push-toon-WAH-lee

Example: Melmastia, welcoming every guest generously, is one of Pashtunwali's main ideas.

See also: Hospitality Customs, Dari and Pashto

People's Republic of Bangladesh¶

The official name of Bangladesh: a parliamentary republic in the eastern part of the old region of Bengal, independent since 1971, with Bangla as its state language. The name means "country of the Bengalis."

Script and sound: বাংলা, BANG-lah (Bangla)

Example: Bangladesh had about 176 million people in 2025 (World Bank).

See also: Dhaka, Bangladesh Liberation War

Perso-Arabic Script¶

The Arabic script as adapted for Persian and then for many South Asian languages, written right to left and working mostly as an abjad, which writes consonants and long vowels but usually leaves short vowels out.

Example: Urdu, Pashto, Dari, Sindhi and Shahmukhi Punjabi are written in Perso-Arabic Script.

See also: Hindi-Urdu (Hindustani), Calligraphy

Phonetic Respelling¶

Writing how a word sounds using ordinary English spelling patterns, with no special marks and the stressed syllable in capitals. It does not show how the word is spelled in its own script.

Example: Diwali is respelled dee-VAH-lee.

See also: Transliteration

Taught in Appendix A: Pronunciation and Script Guide.

Pilgrimage¶

A journey to a sacred place for prayer, blessing, remembrance or renewal. Every faith in South Asia has its own pilgrimage places.

Example: Buddhists travel to Lumbini, the Buddha's birthplace, and Bodh Gaya, where he reached enlightenment.

See also: Lumbini, Sri Pada (Adam's Peak)

Place Value System¶

A way of writing numbers in which a digit's value depends on its position, with each position worth a fixed multiple of the one beside it. The system in use today is base ten.

Example: In 352, the 3 means three hundreds because of its place.

See also: Zero, Hindu-Arabic Numerals

Playback Singing¶

The practice of recording film songs with professional singers whose voices are played back while actors lip-sync on camera.

Example: In South Asia, many playback singers are as famous as the actors who appear on screen.

See also: Film Music (Filmi), Bollywood

Taught in Chapter 15: Cinema, Cricket, and Pop Culture.

Pohela Boishakh¶

The Bengali New Year, "the first of Boishakh," a national holiday in Bangladesh fixed on 14 April and falling on 14 or 15 April in West Bengal.

Script and sound: পহেলা বৈশাখ, po-HEH-la boy-SHAKH

Example: Bangladesh fixed the date by revising its Bengali calendar, officially adopted in 1987.

See also: Vaisakhi, Bengali Language

Pongal and Makar Sankranti¶

Winter harvest festivals that mark the sun's move into Makara (Capricorn in the Indian zodiac), usually on 14 or 15 January. Because they follow the sun, their dates are very predictable.

Example: India's 2026 holiday list put both Pongal and Makar Sankranti on 14 January.

See also: Onam, Lunisolar Calendar

Population of South Asia¶

The total number of people living in the eight countries of South Asia, about 1.99 billion in 2025 (World Bank). That is roughly one in four people on Earth.

Example: India alone had about 1.46 billion people in 2025 (World Bank), the largest share of the region's population.

See also: South Asia

Taught in Chapter 1: What Is South Asia?.

Post-9/11 Backlash¶

The hate crimes, harassment, profiling and discrimination aimed at people perceived as Muslim or Middle Eastern after the 11 September 2001 attacks, including many South Asians.

Example: Sikh men wearing turbans were among those targeted in the post-9/11 backlash.

See also: Turban (Dastar), Stereotypes

Princely States¶

The kingdoms inside British-controlled South Asia that kept their own Indian rulers but accepted British control over their defense and foreign relations through treaties. There were officially about 565 of them when Britain left.

Example: Hyderabad, ruled by a Nizam, and Jammu and Kashmir, ruled by a Maharaja, were among the largest Princely States.

See also: British Raj, Kashmir Dispute

Taught in Chapter 4: Colonialism, Independence, and Partition.

Provinces of Pakistan¶

The four large regions into which Pakistan is divided, each with its own elected assembly: Punjab, Sindh, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Balochistan.

Example: The capital has its own federal area, the Islamabad Capital Territory, separate from the provinces.

Puja¶

The Hindu ritual of offering worship to a deity, often with light, flowers, water, incense or food. It can be a large temple ceremony with priests or a few quiet minutes at a home shrine.

Script and sound: पूजा, POO-jah, "worship" or "honor"

Example: Arjun's grandmother does a short puja every day at the small shrine in their kitchen.

See also: Hinduism, Navaratri and Durga Puja

Punjab Region¶

The cultural and geographic region of the five rivers that feed the Indus, today divided between Pakistan's Punjab province and India's Punjab state. The name comes from Persian words for "five" and "water."

Example: The Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej are the five rivers of the Punjab.

See also: Indus River, Lahore, Bhangra

Punjabi Pioneers in California¶

South Asian men, mostly Sikhs from Punjab, who came to the US West Coast in the early 1900s to work in mills, on railways and on farms, and later farmed in California's agricultural valleys.

Example: Many Punjabi pioneers first worked on railways and farms, then farmed land of their own in California.

See also: Bhagat Singh Thind Case, Diaspora

Q¶

Qawwali¶

A form of Sufi Muslim devotional music sung at Sufi shrines to help listeners feel closer to God. Its development is credited to Amir Khusrau in the 1200s and 1300s.

Script and sound: قوالی, kuh-WAH-lee (Urdu)

Example: Qawwali singers perform at dargahs, the shrines of Sufi saints.

See also: Sufism, Ghazal, Coke Studio

Taught in Chapter 9: Music.

R¶

Rabindranath Tagore¶

A Bengali poet, songwriter, novelist, playwright, painter and educator from Calcutta (1861 to 1941) who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1913, the first Asian to win any Nobel Prize.

Example: Tagore wrote "Jana Gana Mana," India's national anthem.

Radcliffe Line¶

The boundary drawn in 1947 to divide the provinces of Punjab and Bengal between India and Pakistan, based mainly on which districts had Muslim or non-Muslim majorities.

Example: The Radcliffe Line left Sikh holy sites and farmland on both sides of the new border in Punjab.

See also: Partition of 1947, Partition Migration

Taught in Chapter 4: Colonialism, Independence, and Partition.

Raga¶

A framework for creating melody that sets which notes to use, which to emphasize and which phrases give it its character. It is not just a scale: two ragas can share the same notes and still sound different.

Script and sound: राग, RAH-ga

Example: The Hindustani ragas Bhoopali and Deshkar use the same five notes but are treated as separate ragas.

See also: Tala, Sargam, Hindustani Music

Taught in Chapter 9: Music.

Ramadan¶

The ninth month of the Islamic calendar, a month of fasting, prayer and charity lasting 29 or 30 days, during which adult Muslims go without food and drink from dawn until sunset.

Script and sound: رمضان, rah-mah-DAHN (Arabic); রমজান, rom-JAHN (Bangla)

Example: People who are ill, traveling, elderly, pregnant or breastfeeding are excused from the Ramadan fast.

See also: Eid al-Fitr, Islamic Lunar Calendar

Ramayana¶

A Sanskrit epic, "the story of Rama," about Prince Rama of the kingdom of Ayodhya. Its best-known version is traditionally credited to the poet-sage Valmiki.

Script and sound: रामायण, raa-MAA-yuh-nuh

Example: Many families tell the story of Rama's return to Ayodhya at Diwali.

See also: Mahabharata, Oral Tradition, Diwali

Rangoli¶

A design made on the floor or ground using dry materials such as colored powders, rice flour, colored sand or flower petals, most often for festivals.

Script and sound: रंगोली, rung-GOH-lee

Example: Many families draw a rangoli at the doorway for Diwali, or for Tihar in Nepal.

See also: Kolam, Diwali

Taught in Chapter 11: Art, Architecture, and Craft.

Rasa¶

In the arts, the emotional flavor that a performance creates in the audience. The word literally means "juice," "taste" or "essence."

Script and sound: रस, RUH-suh

Example: A dancer shows a feeling, or bhava, and a sensitive audience member "tastes" it as rasa.

See also: Natya Shastra, Mudra

Taught in Chapter 10: Dance and Theater.

Regional Cinemas¶

The film industries that make movies in South Asia's many languages other than Hindi, each with its own stars, studios, history and fans.

Example: Malayalam, Tamil, Telugu and Bengali films come from regional cinemas.

See also: Bollywood, Pakistani Cinema

Taught in Chapter 15: Cinema, Cricket, and Pop Culture.

Regional Cuisines¶

Styles of cooking that grow up in one area, shaped by its grain, climate, coast or mountains, trade history and communities. Borders drawn in 1947 or 1971 often run right through them.

Example: Punjabi food is eaten on both sides of the India-Pakistan border.

See also: Staple Grains, Thali

Taught in Chapter 8: Food and the Table.

Regional Diversity¶

The idea that South Asia is many different places shaped by different land, water and history, rather than one place with one climate, language, faith or way of life.

Example: Snowy Himalayan valleys in Bhutan and the low coral islands of the Maldives are both part of South Asia.

See also: South Asia, Unity in Diversity

Taught in Chapter 1: What Is South Asia?.

Religious Pluralism¶

Many faiths living side by side in the same society and, as an ideal, people of different faiths respecting each other's right to believe and practice. South Asia's long history of it includes shared traditions as well as real conflict.

Example: A city where a temple, a mosque, a gurdwara and a church stand on the same street shows religious pluralism.

See also: Unity in Diversity, Sufism

Remittances¶

Money that migrants send home to their families, which pays for food, school fees, weddings, medical care and new houses.

Example: A worker in Dubai sending part of each paycheck to family in Nepal is sending remittances.

Representation in Media¶

How a group of people is shown on screen and in the news: how often they appear, what roles they play, who writes their stories, and whether portrayals are accurate or rely on stereotypes.

Example: A show written by South Asian American writers about a South Asian American family is an example of representation in media.

See also: Stereotypes, Streaming Era

Taught in Chapter 15: Cinema, Cricket, and Pop Culture.

Republic of India¶

The official name of India: a sovereign, democratic republic and union of states with an elected parliament and a constitution in force since 1950. Its constitution also names the country Bharat.

Script and sound: भारत, BHAH-rut

Example: Article 1 of the Constitution begins, "India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States."

Taught in Chapter 17: India.

Respect for Elders¶

The value that older relatives and community members deserve special honor, care and obedience, and that families should look after them as they age.

Example: In many Hindu and Sikh families, younger people bend to touch an elder's feet as a greeting, and the elder gives a blessing.

Taught in Chapter 13: Family, Names, and Life Events.

Revolt of 1857¶

A large uprising against East India Company rule that began on 10 May 1857 when sepoys at Meerut mutinied, marched to Delhi and declared the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar their leader. It spread across much of northern and central India.

Example: Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi fought on horseback in the Revolt of 1857.

See also: British Raj, East India Company

Taught in Chapter 4: Colonialism, Independence, and Partition.

Rickshaw Art¶

The painting and decoration of cycle rickshaws, best known in Dhaka, Bangladesh, with flowers, birds, heroes, movie stars and text.

Example: Because rickshaws move slowly through Dhaka's streets, they work like a moving art gallery.

See also: Truck Art, Dhaka

Taught in Chapter 11: Art, Architecture, and Craft.

Rise of Buddhism and Jainism¶

The growth of two traditions that began in the Ganga plain in the 6th or 5th century BCE, during the age of the Mahajanapadas, into religions followed by millions.

Example: The Buddha and Mahavira, the great teacher of Jainism, both taught in the kingdoms of the Ganga plain.

See also: Buddhism, Jainism, Mahajanapadas

Taught in Chapter 2: Ancient Roots.

Rivers and Floods¶

In Bangladesh, the yearly rhythm in which monsoon rain and Himalayan meltwater raise the rivers, which spread across the low delta, bringing both fertile soil and danger.

Example: Farmers plant in the rich silt left behind when the floodwaters go down.

See also: Bengal Delta, Monsoon

Roti and Naan¶

Two South Asian flatbreads. Roti is unleavened whole-wheat bread cooked on a flat griddle; naan is usually leavened white-flour bread baked on the inside wall of a tandoor.

Script and sound: रोटी, ROH-tee (roti); नान, Urdu نان, NAHN (naan)

Example: Many families in northern India and Pakistan eat roti at nearly every meal, while naan in India is mostly a restaurant bread.

See also: Staple Grains, Eating With Hands

Taught in Chapter 8: Food and the Table.

S¶

Sangam Age¶

The period in the Tamil-speaking south when the earliest Tamil poetry was composed, which most scholars place between about 300 BCE and 300 CE. Its dates are debated because the poems rarely mention datable events.

Example: Love poems and war poems collected in the Sangam anthologies come from the Sangam Age.

See also: Sangam Literature, Tamil Language

Taught in Chapter 2: Ancient Roots.

Sangam Literature¶

The earliest known body of Tamil poetry, composed roughly between 300 BCE and 300 CE. Sangam means "gathering" or "academy."

Script and sound: சங்கம், SUNG-gum

Example: Tamil tradition says the poems were approved by great assemblies of poets in Madurai.

See also: Sangam Age, Tamil Language

Sanskrit¶

The classical language of ancient South Asia, part of the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European family, whose oldest form is the Vedic Sanskrit of the Vedas.

Script and sound: संस्कृत, SUNS-krit, "refined" or "perfected"

Example: The grammarian Panini described Sanskrit in his Ashtadhyayi, "Eight Chapters."

Taught in Chapter 2: Ancient Roots.

Saree¶

A long, unstitched length of cloth, usually 4.5 to 9 yards long, that a woman wraps around her waist and drapes over one shoulder, worn over a petticoat and a fitted blouse. The decorated end over the shoulder is the pallu.

Script and sound: Hindi साड़ी, Bangla শাড়ি, SAH-ree

Example: A jamdani saree from Dhaka is woven from fine, sheer cotton.

See also: Jamdani, Dhoti

Sargam¶

The practice of singing notes with the syllables sa, re, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, named after the first four. It works like "do, re, mi" in Western solfege.

Example: A music student warms up by singing sa re ga ma pa dha ni sa up and down the scale.

See also: Raga

Taught in Chapter 9: Music.

Sattriya¶

A classical dance from Assam that began in the sattras, Vaishnava monasteries founded after the teacher Srimanta Sankardev in the 1400s and 1500s.

Script and sound: SUT-tree-yuh

Example: For centuries, male monks called bhokots performed Sankardev's dance-dramas as worship.

See also: Classical Dance, Northeast India

Taught in Chapter 10: Dance and Theater.

Satyagraha¶

Gandhi's method of nonviolent resistance in which people openly refuse to obey unjust laws, accept the punishment, and try to win over their opponents rather than defeat them. The Gujarati word combines satya, truth, and agraha, insistence.

Script and sound: સત્યાગ્રહ, SUT-yaa-gruh, "holding firmly to truth"

Example: Breaking an unjust law in public and calmly accepting arrest is an act of satyagraha.

See also: Mahatma Gandhi, Ahimsa

Taught in Chapter 4: Colonialism, Independence, and Partition.

Satyajit Ray¶

A Bengali filmmaker from Kolkata (1921 to 1992), widely considered one of the greatest directors in the history of cinema, who was also a writer, illustrator, magazine editor and composer.

Example: Ray's films are studied in film schools around the world.

See also: Regional Cinemas

Taught in Chapter 15: Cinema, Cricket, and Pop Culture.

Sea-Level Rise¶

The gradual increase in the average height of the ocean, caused mainly by warming seawater expanding and by melting glaciers and ice sheets.

Example: Low coral islands like those of the Maldives are especially threatened by sea-level rise.

See also: Maldives, Atolls

Taught in Chapter 20: Nepal, Bhutan, and the Maldives.

Shadow Puppetry¶

A form of storytelling in which flat cut-out figures are held between a light and a thin cloth screen, so the audience sees moving shadows.

Example: Tholu bommalata, "dance of leather dolls," is the shadow puppetry of Andhra Pradesh.

See also: Oral Tradition, Ramayana

Taught in Chapter 10: Dance and Theater.

Shalwar Kameez¶

A two-piece outfit of loose drawstring trousers (the shalwar) and a long tunic with side slits (the kameez), worn by both men and women.

Script and sound: شلوار قمیض, SHUL-war ka-MEEZ (Urdu)

Example: In Pakistan, the shalwar kameez is everyday wear for both men and women.

See also: Dupatta, Kurta

Sherpa People¶

An ethnic group of the high Himalaya, most of whom live in eastern Nepal, especially Solukhumbu and the Everest region. Their name means something like "people from the east."

Example: Nima Sherpa's family comes from Solukhumbu, Nepal.

See also: Mount Everest, Losar

Taught in Chapter 20: Nepal, Bhutan, and the Maldives.

Sigiriya¶

A royal fortress and palace built on top of a granite rock about 180 m (590 ft) high in central Sri Lanka by King Kashyapa I, who ruled from 477 to 495 CE. Its name comes from Sinhagiri, "Lion Rock."

Script and sound: SEE-gi-ri-ya

Example: Only the huge brick paws remain of Sigiriya's lion-shaped gateway.

See also: Sri Lankan Kingdoms

Taught in Chapter 11: Art, Architecture, and Craft.

Sikhism¶

A faith founded in Punjab by Guru Nanak (1469 to 1539) that teaches devotion to one God, honest work, sharing with others and the equality of all people.

Example: The tenth Guru, Guru Gobind Singh, created the Khalsa, the community of initiated Sikhs, on Vaisakhi in 1699.

See also: Guru Nanak, Guru Granth Sahib, Langar

Silk Weaving¶

Raising silkworms, unwinding or spinning their cocoon thread and weaving it into cloth, usually for festive and wedding clothes.

Example: Mulberry, tasar and eri silk are among the main kinds of silk India recognizes.

See also: Saree, Cotton in South Asia

Sindh¶

Pakistan's southeastern province, the land of the lower Indus River and its delta, with Karachi as its capital. It takes its name from the river, known as the Sindhu.

Example: Mohenjo-daro, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is in Sindh.

Sinhala Language¶

The Indo-Aryan language of the Sinhalese people, the majority of Sri Lankans, written in its own rounded script and most closely related to Dhivehi. It is spoken by about 16 million people.

Script and sound: සිංහල, SING-ha-la

Example: Dilan Perera's family in Kandy speaks Sinhala.

See also: Dhivehi, Indo-Aryan Languages

Sitar¶

A long-necked plucked string instrument with a round gourd body and 18 to 21 strings, many of them sympathetic strings that ring by themselves. Its name comes from the Persian sehtar, "three strings."

Script and sound: सितार, si-TAAR

Example: Sitar players pull the string sideways across the curved frets to bend a note.

See also: Hindustani Music, Tabla

Taught in Chapter 9: Music.

South Asia¶

The region in the south of the Asian continent made up of eight countries: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. It is a geographic and political label that does not put any one country at the center.

Example: When a news story compares rainfall in Nepal, Bangladesh and Pakistan, it is describing weather across South Asia.

Taught in Chapter 1: What Is South Asia?.

South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)¶

The regional organization that the eight countries of South Asia set up to work together on trade, health, education and culture. It was founded in Dhaka on 8 December 1985 by seven countries, and Afghanistan joined as the eighth member in 2007.

Example: SAARC's secretariat, its main office, is in Kathmandu, Nepal.

See also: South Asia

Taught in Chapter 1: What Is South Asia?.

South Asian English Writing¶

Literature written in English by writers from South Asia and its diaspora, along with translated works that reach readers worldwide.

Example: Novels by South Asian authors winning major international prizes are milestones of South Asian English Writing.

See also: Rabindranath Tagore, Diaspora

South Asians in East Africa¶

Communities of Indian, and later Pakistani, origin that grew up in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania and neighboring countries from the late 1800s on, often holding a middle position under British rule.

Example: Many South Asian families in East Africa ran shops or worked as clerks.

See also: Uganda Expulsion of 1972, Diaspora

South Asians in Minnesota¶

Residents of Minnesota with roots in South Asia, a community that includes families from every South Asian country, with temples, mosques, gurdwaras, cultural associations and student clubs across the Twin Cities and beyond.

Example: Zara's family, who moved from Chattogram, Bangladesh, are South Asians in Minnesota.

See also: Diaspora, Student Clubs

South India¶

The southern part of the Indian peninsula, usually meaning Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Telangana plus Puducherry and Lakshadweep, where the main languages are Dravidian.

Example: Telugu, Tamil, Kannada and Malayalam are the main languages of South India.

See also: Dravidian Languages, Northeast India

Taught in Chapter 17: India.

Sri Lanka¶

An island country in the Indian Ocean across the narrow Palk Strait from India, independent since 4 February 1948 and called Ceylon until 1972, when it became a republic. Its official name is the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka.

Script and sound: ශ්‍රී ලංකා (Sinhala)

Example: The Portuguese and Dutch ruled Sri Lanka's coasts, and the British ruled the whole island.

Sri Lankan Civil War¶

An armed conflict from 1983 to 2009 between the government of Sri Lanka and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), an armed group fighting for an independent Tamil state in the north and east.

Example: The war ended in 2009, after 26 years of fighting that caused suffering on all sides.

See also: Sri Lankan Tamils, Sri Lanka

Sri Lankan Independence¶

The peaceful transfer of power from Britain to the island then called Ceylon, which became an independent country on 4 February 1948 under the Ceylon Independence Act of 1947.

Example: Don Stephen Senanayake became the first prime minister of independent Ceylon.

See also: Sri Lanka

Taught in Chapter 4: Colonialism, Independence, and Partition.

Sri Lankan Kingdoms¶

The series of kingdoms, some Sinhala and some Tamil and often existing at the same time, that ruled the island of Sri Lanka before European colonial rule.

Example: Anuradhapura was the capital of one of the earliest Sri Lankan Kingdoms.

See also: Anuradhapura, Sigiriya

Sri Lankan Tamils¶

Tamil-speaking people whose ancestors have lived in Sri Lanka for many centuries, mostly in the north and east, with a long history centered on the Jaffna Peninsula. They differ from Hill Country Tamils, whose ancestors were brought by the British to work on plantations.

Example: Jaffna, in the far north, is a historic center of Sri Lankan Tamil culture.

See also: Tamil Language, Sri Lankan Civil War

Sri Pada (Adam's Peak)¶

A cone-shaped mountain 2,243 m (7,359 ft) high in central Sri Lanka, sacred to people of several faiths because of a footprint-shaped mark in the rock near its summit. Its name means "sacred footprint."

Script and sound: ශ්‍රී පාද

Example: In Buddhist tradition the mark at the summit is the Buddha's footprint, while other faiths explain it differently.

See also: Pilgrimage, Religious Pluralism

Srinivasa Ramanujan¶

A mostly self-taught mathematician from Tamil Nadu (1887 to 1920) whose discoveries about numbers, infinite series and fractions still keep mathematicians busy.

Example: In 1913 Ramanujan wrote to G. H. Hardy at Cambridge, who invited him to England.

See also: Kerala School, C. V. Raman

Staple Grains¶

The grains a community eats nearly every day and builds most meals around. In South Asia the three main families are rice, wheat and millets.

Example: Rice is the staple in the Bengal delta, while bread made from wheat is the staple on the plains of Pakistan.

See also: Regional Cuisines, Roti and Naan

Taught in Chapter 8: Food and the Table.

States and Union Territories¶

The divisions of India: 28 states with their own elected governments that share power with the center, and 8 union territories governed more directly by the national government (as of October 2026).

Example: Kerala is a state, while Delhi is a union territory.

See also: Linguistic States, Republic of India

Taught in Chapter 17: India.

Stereotypes¶

Fixed, oversimplified beliefs about a whole group of people, applied to every member of it.

Example: "They all speak Indian" is a stereotype, since there is no language called "Indian."

Taught in Chapter 22: Bring It Home.

Streaming Era¶

The period, mainly since the late 2010s, when films and TV shows began reaching audiences through online services such as Netflix, Amazon Prime Video, Disney+ and YouTube instead of only through theaters and TV.

Example: A Malayalam thriller can now be watched with subtitles anywhere in the world on the day it comes out.

Taught in Chapter 15: Cinema, Cricket, and Pop Culture.

Street Food¶

Food made and sold by vendors at stalls, carts and tiny shops, usually eaten standing up or on the go.

Example: Many South Asians who move abroad say street food is what they miss most.

See also: Regional Cuisines

Taught in Chapter 8: Food and the Table.

Student Clubs¶

Student-run groups at a school, usually with a faculty advisor, that meet regularly around a shared interest or identity.

Example: A South Asian Student Association is one kind of student club.

See also: Community Organizing, Community Impact

Taught in Chapter 22: Bring It Home.

Stupa¶

A Buddhist monument shaped like a dome or mound, built over relics or sacred objects. Buddhists honor it by walking around it clockwise.

Script and sound: स्तूप, STOO-puh

Example: A classic stupa has a solid round dome topped by a railing and a pole with umbrella-like discs.

See also: Buddhism, Hindu Temple Architecture

Taught in Chapter 11: Art, Architecture, and Craft.

Sufism¶

The inward, devotional tradition of Islam, focused on the love of God and drawing closer to God through prayer, remembrance and a teacher's guidance. A Sufi usually belongs to an order, a chain of teachers and students.

Script and sound: صوفی, SOO-fee (Persian)

Example: Qawwali is devotional music that grew out of Sufi gatherings.

See also: Qawwali, Islam in South Asia, Bhakti Movement

Sundarbans¶

The world's largest mangrove forest, on the coast of the Bengal Delta, shared by Bangladesh and India. Its name means "beautiful forest" in Bangla.

Script and sound: সুন্দরবন, SHOON-dor-bon

Example: The name may refer to the sundari trees that grow in the Sundarbans.

See also: Bengal Delta, Bay of Bengal

Sunni and Shia Islam¶

The two main branches of Islam, which separated over a disagreement about who should lead the Muslim community after the Prophet Muhammad died in 632. Sunni Muslims accept Abu Bakr as the first caliph; Shia Muslims hold that the Prophet named Ali as his successor.

Example: Ashura is a day of mourning for Shia Muslims and a day of fasting for many Sunni Muslims.

See also: Islam in South Asia, Ashura

Surnames¶

Family names passed down from one generation to the next. In much of South Asia they exist but do not always work as they do in the United States, and some people have none.

Example: The Sri Lankan surname Perera dates from Portuguese rule in the 1500s and 1600s.

See also: Naming Traditions

Taught in Chapter 13: Family, Names, and Life Events.

Sushruta Samhita¶

An old Sanskrit medical text linked to the physician Sushruta, famous for its detailed descriptions of surgical instruments and operations.

Example: It describes rebuilding a damaged nose using a flap of skin from the cheek.

See also: Ayurveda

T¶

Tabla¶

A pair of hand drums that is the main drum of Hindustani music: the smaller wooden dayan produces clear tuned tones, and the larger bayan produces deep bass sounds.

Script and sound: तबला, TUB-la

Example: The black circle of paste on each tabla head gives the drum its ringing tone.

See also: Tala, Hindustani Music

Taught in Chapter 9: Music.

Tadka¶

The cooking step called tempering, in which whole spices, and sometimes garlic, dried chili or curry leaves, are fried briefly in hot oil or ghee and poured over a finished dish.

Script and sound: तड़का, TUD-kah

Example: In Bangla the same step is called phoron, and in Urdu baghaar.

See also: Masala, Dal

Taught in Chapter 8: Food and the Table.

Taj Mahal¶

A white marble mausoleum in Agra built between about 1631 and 1648 by order of the emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal. UNESCO listed it as a World Heritage Site in 1983.

Example: Shah Jahan himself was later buried in the Taj Mahal beside Mumtaz Mahal.

See also: Mughal Architecture, Mughal Empire

Tala¶

A repeating cycle of beats that organizes time in a piece of music, counted with claps, waves and finger taps. The first beat of the cycle, the sam, is its most important moment.

Script and sound: ताल, TAAL

Example: Musicians may improvise across the beat but aim to land together on sam at the end of each tala cycle.

See also: Raga, Tabla

Taught in Chapter 9: Music.

Tamil Language¶

A Dravidian language spoken by about 69 million people in India in 2011, mostly in Tamil Nadu, and one of the two official and national languages of Sri Lanka. Its literature goes back roughly two thousand years.

Script and sound: தமிழ், THUH-mizh

Example: Tamil is also one of the official languages of Singapore.

Terracotta¶

Clay that is shaped and then fired, usually to an orange-red color. The Italian word means "baked earth."

Example: In the Bengal delta, temple walls were covered with terracotta panels showing gods, epics and daily life.

See also: Hindu Temple Architecture

Taught in Chapter 11: Art, Architecture, and Craft.

Thali¶

A large round plate, usually metal, holding a complete meal: a staple in the middle and several small dishes in bowls called katori around it. The word means both the plate and the meal.

Script and sound: थाली, TAH-lee, "plate"

Example: A Gujarati thali might hold rice and roti with dal, vegetables, pickle and a sweet.

See also: Regional Cuisines, Dal

Taught in Chapter 8: Food and the Table.

Thangka¶

A Buddhist painting on cotton or silk that can be rolled up like a scroll, showing a deity, a scene from the Buddha's life or a mandala. It is used for teaching and meditation.

Script and sound: ཐང་ཀ, TAHNG-kah (Tibetan)

Example: Thangkas are made in Nepal, Bhutan, Tibet and the Himalayan parts of India.

See also: Theravada and Vajrayana

Taught in Chapter 11: Art, Architecture, and Craft.

Thar Desert¶

A dry region of sandy plains and low hills, also called the Great Indian Desert, that lies mostly in the Indian state of Rajasthan and partly in Pakistan's Sindh and Punjab provinces. It usually gets less than 500 mm (20 inches) of rain a year.

Example: About 85 percent of the Thar Desert lies in India.

See also: Monsoon, Sindh

Taught in Chapter 1: What Is South Asia?.

The Vedas¶

Four collections of sacred hymns, chants, ritual instructions and teachings composed in an early form of Sanskrit, which are the oldest scriptures of Hinduism.

Script and sound: वेद, VAY-duh, "knowledge"

Example: The Rig Veda is the oldest of the four Vedas.

See also: Vedic Period, Hinduism

Taught in Chapter 2: Ancient Roots.

Theravada and Vajrayana¶

Two of the main schools of Buddhism. Theravada, "teaching of the elders," is the school of Sri Lanka and follows the Pali Canon; Vajrayana, the "diamond" or "thunderbolt" vehicle, became the Buddhism of Tibet, Bhutan and Himalayan Nepal.

Example: A monk in Kandy follows Theravada, while a monk in a Bhutanese dzong follows Vajrayana.

See also: Buddhism, Thangka

Third Culture Kids¶

People who spent a large part of their childhood living in a culture different from their parents', usually because a parent's job moved the family between countries. The sociologist Ruth Useem first used the term in the 1960s.

Example: A child of diplomats who grew up in three countries is a third culture kid.

See also: Hyphenated Identity, Cultural Identity

Taught in Chapter 22: Bring It Home.

Tibeto-Burman Languages¶

The South Asian members of the Sino-Tibetan family, spoken mostly in the Himalaya and in India's northeast. India's 2011 census counted 66 of them, more than any other family.

Example: Dzongkha in Bhutan and Sherpa and Newar in Nepal are Tibeto-Burman languages.

See also: Dzongkha, Language Family

Transliteration¶

Writing a word from one script in another script, letter by letter, so that a reader could rebuild the original spelling, often using extra marks.

Example: In one widely used system, दीवाली becomes dīvālī.

See also: Phonetic Respelling, Devanagari

Taught in Appendix A: Pronunciation and Script Guide.

Transnational Families¶

Families whose members live in two or more countries but stay closely connected, sharing money, decisions, care and daily life across borders.

Example: A grandmother in Dhaka who joins dinner every night by video call is part of a transnational family.

See also: Remittances, Diaspora

Truck Art¶

The tradition of decorating trucks and buses with paintings, calligraphy, carved wood, mirrors and reflective strips, best known in Pakistan.

Example: A decorated Pakistani truck may carry mountain landscapes, poetry and a tall carved wooden "crown" above the cab.

See also: Rickshaw Art

Taught in Chapter 11: Art, Architecture, and Craft.

Turban (Dastar)¶

For Sikhs, the dastar is an article of faith, a turban that covers uncut hair (kesh). In Sikh tradition, the Gurus adopted it to declare the sovereignty and equality of all people.

Script and sound: ਦਸਤਾਰ, dus-TAAR

Example: Many Sikh men, and some Sikh women, tie a dastar each day to cover their uncut hair.

See also: Sikhism, Post-9/11 Backlash

U¶

Uganda Expulsion of 1972¶

The forced removal of nearly all South Asians from Uganda by the military ruler Idi Amin, who announced on 4 August 1972 that they had 90 days to leave.

Example: About 80,000 people of South Asian descent, many born in Uganda, had to abandon homes and businesses.

Unani Medicine¶

A healing tradition that began with the Greek physicians Hippocrates and Galen, was developed by doctors writing in Arabic and Persian, and came to South Asia by the 1100s. It is based on the old idea of balancing four "humors."

Script and sound: یونانی, yoo-NAA-nee, "Greek"

Example: Unani practitioners are often called hakims.

See also: Ayurveda, Indo-Persian Culture

Unity in Diversity¶

The idea that a country can hold many languages, faiths, peoples and cultures and still be one nation, with differences seen as a strength. Indian leaders and schools have used the phrase since independence.

Example: An Indian school assembly with songs in several languages celebrates unity in diversity.

See also: Regional Diversity, Religious Pluralism

Taught in Chapter 17: India.

Urdu as National Language¶

The status of Urdu as the language Pakistan's constitution names for the whole nation, even though only a small share of Pakistanis speak it as a first language.

Script and sound: اردو, OOR-doo

Example: Article 251 of the 1973 constitution names Urdu the national language and lets provinces promote their own languages.

V¶

Vaisakhi¶

A harvest festival and new year in Punjab and much of North India on 13 or 14 April, and one of the most important days of the Sikh year. It is also spelled Baisakhi.

Script and sound: VAI-saa-khee

Example: Sikhs mark Vaisakhi with prayers at the gurdwara and nagar kirtan, processions with hymn singing.

See also: Sikhism, Pohela Boishakh

Varna and Jati¶

The two ideas behind what English speakers call caste. Varna is a fourfold social classification described in old Brahmanical Sanskrit texts; jati is the local group a person is born into, of which there are thousands.

Script and sound: वर्ण, VAR-na (varna); जाति, JAA-tee, "birth" or "kind" (jati)

Example: The Manusmriti lists four varnas and assigns each one duties.

See also: Caste System

Taught in Chapter 13: Family, Names, and Life Events.

Vedic Period¶

The era from about 1500 to 500 BCE when the Vedas were composed in northern South Asia, between the end of the Indus cities and the rise of new cities and kingdoms around 600 BCE.

Example: The Rig Veda, the oldest of the Vedas, comes from the early part of the Vedic Period.

See also: The Vedas, Sanskrit

Taught in Chapter 2: Ancient Roots.

Veena¶

An ancient name for stringed instruments used in Indian texts for about 3,000 years. In Carnatic music it usually means the Saraswati veena, a large plucked lute with 24 fixed frets.

Script and sound: वीणा, Tamil வீணை, VEE-nah

Example: The Hindu goddess Saraswati is usually shown holding a veena.

See also: Carnatic Music

Taught in Chapter 9: Music.

Vegetarianism in South Asia¶

The practice of eating diets without meat, and often without fish or eggs, which is more common in South Asia than almost anywhere else, though most South Asians are not vegetarian.

Example: A Pew Research Center survey of nearly 30,000 adults in India, published in 2021, measured how many Indians are vegetarian.

See also: Ahimsa, Dietary Rules and Faith

Taught in Chapter 8: Food and the Table.

Vesak¶

The most important Buddhist festival in South Asia, on the full moon of the month of Vesak, usually in May, when Buddhists remember the Buddha's birth, enlightenment and passing away. It is also called Buddha Purnima.

Script and sound: වෙසක්, VAY-suck (Sinhala)

Example: In 1999 the United Nations General Assembly formally recognized the Day of Vesak.

See also: Buddhism, Lumbini

Vijayanagara Empire¶

A large Hindu-ruled empire of southern India from 1336 to 1646, named after its capital city, Vijayanagara, "city of victory."

Example: The ruins of the capital city stand at Hampi, in Karnataka.

See also: Delhi Sultanate, Chola Dynasty

W¶

Weddings¶

In South Asia, often multi-day events that join two families, not just two people, with separate ceremonies before, during and after the main rite. Details differ widely by faith, region and family budget.

Example: A wedding with a mehndi night, a nikah or other main ceremony, and a reception afterward can stretch across several days.

Taught in Chapter 13: Family, Names, and Life Events.

Western and Eastern Ghats¶

The two mountain ranges that frame the Deccan Plateau, one along each coast of peninsular India. Ghat means a flight of steps down to a river, or a mountain pass.

Script and sound: घाट, GHAAT

Example: The ranges act like giant steps from the plateau down to the sea on India's west and east coasts.

See also: Deccan Plateau

Taught in Chapter 1: What Is South Asia?.

Wootz Steel¶

A high-carbon steel made in South India and Sri Lanka by melting iron with carbon-rich material in sealed clay crucibles, famous for its strength and wavy surface pattern. "Wootz" comes from ukku, the Kannada and Telugu word for steel.

Example: Finds in Tamil Nadu suggest crucible steel was made there before the Common Era.

See also: Indian Ocean Trade

Y¶

Yoga¶

A set of practices rooted in South Asian philosophy that combines body postures, breathing and meditation, which began as a spiritual discipline for training the mind.

Script and sound: योग, YOH-guh, "joining" or "union"

Example: The poses taught at a gym are only one part of the much bigger yoga tradition.

See also: Ayurveda, Hinduism

Z¶

Zero¶

Both a symbol that marks an empty place in a number and a number in its own right, the result of subtracting any number from itself. The two ideas arrived at different times.

Example: Brahmagupta wrote rules for calculating with zero as a number in 628 CE.

See also: Place Value System, Brahmagupta

Zoroastrians (Parsis)¶

Followers of Zoroastrianism, an ancient faith founded by the prophet Zoroaster in Iran; in South Asia most belong to the Parsi community, whose ancestors came from Iran. Parsi means "Persian."

Example: In the community's own story, the Qissa-i Sanjan, Zoroastrians from Iran landed on the coast of Gujarat.

See also: Religious Pluralism, Nowruz